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Файл:Английский язык для инженеров-механиков. Учебное пособие
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51
Активный залог
Tense
Present
Past
Future
Indefinite
V1 (V
s/es
)
I / you / they / we write a
paper every year.
He / she writes a paper
every week.
Вспомогательные глаголы: do / does
V2
I / you / they / we /
he / she wrote a paper
last year.
Вспомогательный
глагол: did
will / shall +V1
You / they / he / she will
write a paper next year.
I / we shall write a paper next year.
Вспомогательные глаголы: will / shall
Continuous
to be (am, is, are) + V
ing
I am writing a paper now.
He / she is writing a paper
now.
You / they / we are writing
a paper now.
Вспомогательные глаголы: am / is / are
was / were + V
ing
I / he / she was writing
a paper yesterday at 6
p.m.
You / we / they were
writing a paper yesterday at 6 p.m.
Вспомогательные
глаголы: was / were
will be + V
ing
I / you / they / we / he /
she will be writing a paper tomorrow at 6 p.m.
Вспомогательный глагол: will
Perfect
have / has + V3
I / you / we / they have just
written a paper.
He / she has just written a
paper.
Вспомогательные глаголы: have / has
had + V3
I / you / we / they / he /
she had written a paper yesterday by 6 p.m.
Вспомогательный
глагол: had
will have + V3
I / you / we / they / he /
she will have written a
paper tomorrow by 6
p.m.
Вспомогательный глагол: will
Perfect Continuous
have / has + been + V
ing
I / you / we / they have been
writing a paper for 2 years.
He / she has been writing a
paper for 2 years.
Вспомогательные глаголы: have / has
had + been + V
ing
I / you / we / they / he /
she had been writing
a paper for 3 hours.
Вспомогательный
глагол: had
will have + been + V
ing
I / you / we / they / he /
she will have been writ-
ing a paper for 3 hours.
Вспомогательный глагол: will
Таблица 3
V – глагол (verb);
V2 – вторая форма глагола;
V3 – третья форма глагола.
!
52
Пассивный залог
Tense
Present
Past
Future
Indefinite
to be (am, is, are) +V3
The abstract is written.
I am asked to publish a
paper.
The report is made.
The paper is received.
Proceedings are pub-
lished.
Вспомогательные глаголы: am / is / are
was / were +V3
The abstract was written.
I was asked to publish a
paper.
The report was made.
The paper was received.
Proceedings were pub-
lished.
Вспомогательные глаголы: was / were
will be +V3
The abstract will be written.
I will be asked to publish
a paper.
The report will be made.
The paper will be re-
ceived.
Proceedings will be pub-
lished.
Вспомогательные глаголы: will / shall
Continuous
am /is / are + being + V3
The abstract is being
written.
The report is being
made.
The paper is being received.
Proceedings are being
published.
Вспомогательные глаголы: am / is / are
was / were + being + V3
The abstract was being
written.
The report was being
made.
The paper was being received.
Proceedings were being
published.
Вспомогательные глаголы: was / were
Perfect
have / has + been + V3
The abstract has been
written.
The report has been
made.
The paper has been received.
Proceedings have been
published.
Вспомогательные глаголы: have / has
had + been + V3
The abstract had been
written.
The report had been
made.
The paper had been received.
Proceedings had been
published.
Вспомогательный глагол: had
will have + been+ V3
The abstract will have
been written.
The report will have
been made.
The paper will have been
received.
Proceedings will have
been published.
Вспомогательный глагол: will
Таблица 4
!
V – глагол (verb);
V3 – третья форма глагола.
53
2. Заполните пропуски в предложениях соответствую-
щими видовременными формами следующих глаголов: to get;
to analyze; to develop; to apply; to use; to conduct; to defend; to connect; to learn; to establish
1. A mechanical engineer _________ physics, mathematics, and materials science principles to design, analyze, manufacture, and
maintain mechanical systems.
2. I _______ my Bachelor’s degree in Mechanical Engineering last
year.
3. I _________ my Master’s degree thesis next year.
4. My research interests ___________ with mechanical properties of
different liquid substances.
5. The research plan __________ by an experienced researcher two
months ago.
6. I ___________ an experiment in the laboratory now.
7. We ___________ the obtained experimental results already.
8. Kazan National Research Technological University ________ in
1890.
9. Scientific methods ___________ to pursue research.
10. We ________ new English grammar now.
REVIEW AND PRACTICE
1. Read and translate
Гидродинамика – to apply – динамика – to observe – кинема-
тический – to contribute – спирт – to originate – theory – обеспечивать – mechanics – определять – criterion – предлагать – inertial –
характеризовать – academic – измерять – regime – характерный линейный размер – characteristic – сила внутреннего трения –
configuration –пульсации потока – distance – ламинарный поток –
fluid – динамическое подобие – typical – уравнение гидродинамики – type – параметры потока – general – средняя скорость жидкости – section – число Рейнольдса – fluctuation – турбулентный поток – laminar – поперечное сечение – turbulent – быть названным
в честь – however – критерий подобия – academic circles –
!
54
постепенный переход – smooth – силы инерции –движение жидко-
Динамическая вязкость, Па с
Dynamic viscosity, Pa s
Площадь, см
2
Масса, кг
Длина, м
Скорость м/сек
Плотность, кг/м3
Температура, °C
Поверхностное натяжение, Дж/м
2
Давление, Па
Теплопроводность, Вт/м К
n
n
=
µ
rn
=
LL
Re
ss
сти – to dominate – on the other hand – сила.
2. Describe the following physical equations using the example
below:
ν=μ/ρ
The kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity μ to
the density of the fluid ρ. It is usually denoted by the Greek letter ν.
E=mc2
The energy E is equal to the product of the mass m and the speed
of light c to the 2nd power.
1. Уравнение для расчета теплоемкости c=ΔQ/ΔT, где
ΔQ – количество теплоты (the amount of heat), ΔT – разность
температур.
2. Уравнение для определения давления P=ρgh, где h – высота,
ρ – плотность, g – ускорение силы тяжести (gravity), равное
9,8 м/с
2
.
3. Формулу, определяющую электросопротивление ρ=E/J, в которой E – энергия электрического поля, J – плотность тока.
4. Уравнение для расчета числа Рейнольдса , где
vs – средняя скорость (м/с), L – характерный линейный размер
(м), μ – динамическая вязкость (Н с/м2), ν – кинематическая
вязкость (м2/с), ρ – плотность (кг/м3).
3. Translate into the English language and read physical pa-
rameters and their units
!
55
Электросопротивление, Ом м
Кинетическая вязкость, м2/с
Ток, А
Теплоемкость, Дж/моль К
55
4. Prepare a short report about Hydrodynamics, its parame-
ters and equations and present it to your groupmates.
!
56
UNIT 5
A
B
1) macroscopic scale
2) adiabatic process
3) closed system
4) boundary
5) initial state
6) intensive variables
7) steam engine
8) isolated system
9) extensive variables
10) thermodynamic equilibrium
11) isothermal process
12) definite state
13) conjugate pair
14) diathermic system
15) surroundings
16) by definition
a) диатермическая система
b) определенное состояние
c) замкнутая система
d) по определению
e) изотермический процесс
f) окружающая среда
g) паровой двигатель
h) изолированная система
i) термодинамическое равнове-
сие
j) первоначальное состояние
k) граница
l) адиабатный процесс
m) сопряженная пара
n) экстенсивные переменные
o) интенсивные переменные
p) макроскопический масштаб
THERMODYNAMICS
VOCABULARY
1. Read and translate the international words
Thermodynamics, thermodynamic, physics, physical, physicist,
system, effect, temperature, macroscopic, analyze, analysis, analytical,
dominant, isolated, extract, adiabatic, diathermic, energy, transfer,
extraction, compression, parameter, constant, statistics.
2. Read and translate the verbs
To study, to develop, to separate, to take place, to tend, to consider,
to conserve, to stipulate, to extract, to describe, to define, to distinguish,
to group.
3. Match the English word combinations in column A to their
Russian equivalents in column B
!
57
READING AND TRANSLATING
4. Read and translate the expression and learn it by heart
“Thermodynamics is a funny subject. The first time you go
through it, you don't understand it at all. The second time you go through
it, you think you understand it, except for one or two small points. The
third time you go through it, you know you don't understand it, but by
that time you are so used to it, it doesn't bother you anymore.”
Arnold Sommerfeld
5. Read and translate
Thermodynamics (from the Greek “therme”, meaning “heat” and
dynamis, meaning “power”) is a branch of physics that studies the
effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical
systems at the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion of
their particles using statistics. Historically, thermodynamics developed
out of need to increase the efficiency of early steam engines.
An important concept in thermodynamics
is the “system”. Everything in the universe
except the system is known as surroundings. A
system is the region of the universe under
study. A system is separated from the
remainder of the universe by a boundary which
may be imaginary or not. The possible
exchanges of work, heat, or matter between the
system and the surroundings take place across this boundary.
Boundaries are of four types: fixed, moveable, real, and imaginary.
There are five dominant classes of systems: Isolated Systems,
Adiabatic Systems, Diathermic Systems, Closed Systems, Open
Systems. As time passes in an isolated system, internal differences in
the system tend to even out and pressures and temperatures tend to
equalize, as do density differences. A system in which all equalizing
processes have gone practically to completion, is considered to be in
a state of thermodynamic equilibrium. In thermodynamic equilibrium,
a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time. Systems in
equilibrium are much simpler and easier to understand than systems
which are not in equilibrium.
!
58
The central concept of thermodynamics is that of energy,
A
B
1) Isolated systems
2) Adiabatic systems
3) Diathermic systems
4) Closed systems
5) Open systems
a) matter may not cross the boundary
b) heat, work, and matter may cross
the boundary (often called a control
volume in this case)
c) heat must not cross the boundary
d) heat may cross the boundary
e) matter and energy may not cross
the boundary
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1
the ability to do work. As stipulated by the first law, the total energy of
the system and its surroundings is conserved. It may be transferred into
a body by heating, compression, or addition of matter, and extracted
from a body either by cooling, expansion, or extraction of matter.
When a system is at equilibrium under a given set of conditions, it
is said to be in a definite state. The state of the system can be described
by a number of intensive variables and extensive variables.
The properties of the system can be described by an equation of state
which specifies the relationship between these variables.
A thermodynamic process may be defined as the energetic
evolution of a thermodynamic system proceeding from an initial state
to a final state. Typically, each thermodynamic process is distinguished
from other processes, in energetic character, according to what
parameters, as temperature, pressure, or volume, etc., are held fixed.
Furthermore, it is useful to group these processes into pairs, in which
each variable held constant is one member of a conjugate pair.
The seven most common thermodynamic processes are isobaric process,
isochoric process, isothermal process, adiabatic process, isentropic
process and isenthalpic process1.
6. Match the thermodynamic systems in column A to their def-
initions in column B:
7. Complete the sentences with the following words:
temperature; enthalpy; pressure; heat; volume; entropy:
• An isobaric process occurs at a constant _______________.
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Thermodynamics
!
!
59
• An isochoric process, or isometric/isovolumetric process,
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1
occurs at a constant _____________.
• An isothermal process occurs at a constant _____________.
• An adiabatic process occurs without loss or gain of
__________.
• An isentropic process (reversible adiabatic process) occurs at
a constant _____________.
• An isenthalpic process occurs at a constant ______________.
8. Read and translate. Learn by heart all laws of thermody-
namics
Laws of Thermodynamics
In thermodynamics, there are four laws which can be applied to
systems about which one knows nothing other than the balance of
energy and matter transfer.
The four laws are:
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics about the thermodynamic
equilibrium is an equivalence relation.
If two thermodynamic systems are separately in thermal
equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
• The first law of thermodynamics, about the conservation of energy.
The change in the internal energy of a closed thermodynamic
system is equal to the sum of the amount of heat energy supplied to the
system and the work done on the system.
• The second law of thermodynamics, about entropy.
The total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic system tends to
increase over time, approaching a maximum value.
• The third law of thermodynamics, about absolute zero temperature.
As a system asymptotically approaches absolute zero of
temperature, all processes virtually cease and the entropy of the system
asymptotically approaches a minimum value; also stated as: "the
entropy of all systems and of all states of a system is zero at absolute
zero"1.
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Thermodynamics
!
!
60
9. Answer the questions
60
1. What is the object of thermodynamics study?
2. What types of boundaries do you know?
3. What intensive variables can you name?
4. When does the entropy of the system approach a minimum value?
5. What systems are easier to understand and to study?
6. When does the isentropic process occur?
7. What system can you consider closed?
10. Translate the sentences into the English language
1. Теплота, сообщаемая системе, расходуется на изменение
внутренней энергии системы и на совершение системой работы против внешних сил.
2. Температура, давление, объем – это те параметры, с помощью которых можно описать энергетический характер системы.
3. Обмен теплотой, работой, веществом между системой и
внешней средой осуществляется через границу, которая может быть воображаемой или реальной.
4. Раздел теоретической физики, в котором физические свойства макроскопических систем изучаются с помощью термодинамического метода, называется термодинамикой.
5. Различают два типа термодинамических параметров: экстенсивные и интенсивные.
6. Большую роль играет адиабатный процесс, который происходит без теплообмена между системой и внешней средой.
7. Открытой системой называется термодинамическая система,
которая может обмениваться веществом с внешней средой.
8. Все во вселенной подчиняется термодинамическим законам.
9. Изотермический процесс протекает при постоянной температуре.
10. Адиабатный процесс протекает без потери тепла.
!
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