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Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics is an assessment activity that is
aimed at studying the individual psychological characteristics of a person for the
purpose of correctional and developmental work.
This type of diagnosis is intended, firstly, to optimize the educational process
at school, secondly, to ensure the identification of unsuccessful educational results,
and thirdly, based on the developed criteria, to limit to a minimum errors in
organizing the education and self-education of schoolchildren.
The study of behavioral factors inevitably leads to the problem of determining
the structure of personality, which in turn involves identifying the elements that make
it up. The study should cover the properties of each of them and the nature of the
relationships between the elements that form the structure of the personality as a
whole. Modern theories of personality have a wide variety of both elements that are
included in the structure of personality and system-forming factors that combine
elements into a system. As R. Cattell rightly noted, “...in psychology there has never
been a shortage of personality theories,” which has led to a situation where “small
sprouts of precisely formulated hypotheses are easily lost in the lush thickets of
untestable but grandiose theories.”
The same problem is present when raising the question of diagnosing the level
of psychosocial development of an individual or his upbringing. Inconsistency in the
definitions of the basic qualities of a person and the criteria for the forms of his
behavior leads to the fact that the possibility of diagnosis within the framework of
educational psychology is very difficult. The variety of terms and their different
content are based on a large number of scientific concepts and original theories of
personality.
Most often, the researcher draws a conclusion about character traits, good
manners as a result of the education process, motivation, and value meanings not on
the basis of observation, but based on the results of a survey, introspection, and selfreport of people. It is practically impossible to use such methods to study a child's
personality, and therefore psychologists do not have valid and reliable methods for
studying the developmental level of parenting in young children.
Pedagogical diagnostics is the control and assessment of the development,
training and education of an individual in order to optimize the educational process,
differentiate students, improve educational programs and methods of pedagogical
influence.
Pedagogical diagnostics establishes signs, criteria and indicators that
characterize the content and outcome of education, on the basis of which it is possible
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to predict possible deviations, adjust the processes of training and education in order
to improve the quality of education.
Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics differ mainly in the degree of
standardization and breadth of interpretation.
When starting educational work, the teacher formulates goals and objectives.
Completing it, the teacher must sum up the results, that is, find out what was
achieved. Only then can one determine the success of education, the correctness of
the intended tasks, the correctness of the chosen principles, the reliability of the
methods and techniques used, the effectiveness of the means, forms and technologies
used. Diagnosis of upbringing is also important during the educational process.
Thus, diagnostics of upbringing is necessary. But it is associated with
considerable difficulties.
Firstly, upbringing forms value relationships, and this is the deep substance of
personality. Value relations are a connection selectively established in the
consciousness of the subject with an object in the surrounding world, manifested in
verbal, emotional-sensual and practically effective forms [N. E. Shchurkova].
Therefore, most research techniques in educational psychology are qualitative
methods. They are the ones who have the ability to preserve semantic meanings in the
available materials, rely on them and focus the researcher on understanding and
revealing the underlying reasons for the emergence or existence of the phenomenon
being studied. Qualitative components of research have a greater ability to obtain
materials about the motives, values and attitudes of people. They are used for a
deeper understanding of the processes occurring in the human mind and allow us to
identify patterns of behavior.
Secondly, the problems of diagnosing the educational process are becoming
increasingly relevant in psychological and pedagogical practice due to the tendency
to consider, design and implement the educational process as technological. An
indispensable requirement for any pedagogical technology is the presence of a
diagnostically specified goal. To comply with it, a high-quality interpretation of the
results of diagnostic techniques is not enough. Meanwhile, it is precisely the methods
of qualitative analysis and assessment of conditions, as well as the results of the
educational process, that traditionally prevail in domestic pedagogy. This is primarily
due to the fact that identifying and predicting the results of educational activities is
very difficult due to the presence of a large number of factors influencing the
educational process and the student himself, including in the diagnostic process. As a
result, in relation to the field of education, pedagogical measurements and
pedagogical qualimetry present complex theoretical and practical problems. The need
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for diagnostic methods that allow for not only qualitative, but also quantitative
analysis of the upbringing process is increasing due to the widespread use of the
environmental approach to upbringing, since organizing the upbringing environment
requires the availability of quantitative data on many parameters [I. A. Solovtsova].
Thirdly, the results of educational influences are probabilistic and statistical in
nature. This means that if, for example, in such and such a situation you did such and
such a thousand times and got such and such a result, then there is a possibility that if
you do the same thing the thousand and first time, you can get a completely different
result, because purposeful exposure to or creation of appropriate conditions is only
one of many factors that shape personality. Other factors can negate, enhance or
neutralize the pedagogical impact [P. I. Pidkasisty].
Overcoming these difficulties requires the development and application of
correct procedures used by teachers and psychologists in measuring the upbringing
and psychosocial development of a child.
The possibility of diagnosis raises the question of the likelihood of managing the
upbringing of a child’s personality. For example, A. K. Markova and R. S. Nemov
assumes the presence of instrumental content in the educational impact. The first
identifies moral knowledge, beliefs, actions (psychological diagnosis) [A. K. Markova],
and the second — goals, methods and means, theories and institutions of education
[R. S. Nemov]. Therefore, we can conclude that education can be measured.
The methodological foundation for diagnosing the effectiveness of the
educational system is the “image” of the graduate as the goal, subject and result of
the educational process. The federal state educational standards describe in sufficient
detail the portrait of a graduate of different levels of education, containing the main
guidelines and targets for educational influences. After reviewing them, we can
conclude that more than half of this list is precisely the result of educational work,
since their content describes not knowledge and skills, but the qualities and
characteristics of the child’s personality.
Test questions and assignments
1. Name the stages of educational work in an educational organization. At what
stages is psychological and pedagogical diagnostics carried out?
2. What difficulties may arise for a teacher in the process of diagnosing the
results of educational influences?
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Recommended reading
1. Маркова, А. К. Мотивация учения и ее воспитание у школьников /
А. К. Маркова, А. Б. Орлов, Л. М. Фридман. — Москва : Педагогика, 1983. —
65 с.
2. Сидоркин, А. М. Личность в воспитании и воспитание личности /
А. М. Сидоркин, Н. П. Аникеева, Е. В. Киселева [и др.]. — Новосибирск : Издво НГПУ, 2014. — 91 с.
3. Соловцова, И. А. Проблемы диагностирования процесса духовного
воспитания / И. А. Соловцева // Педагогическая диагностика в воспитании :
сборник научных и методических трудов / под ред. Н. К. Сергеева,
Н. М. Борытко, М. В. Корепановой [и др.]. — Волгоград : Изд-во ВГИПК РО,
2003. — 96 с.
4. Щуркова, Н. Е. Воспитательный процесс в школе : в 3 частях /
Н. Е. Щуркова. — Москва : Педагогический поиск, 2011.
3.2. METHODS OF DIAGNOSTICS OF PERSONALITY EDUCATION
If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects,
then it must first of all get to know him in all respects.
K. D. Ushinsky
A method is a way of cognition through which the subject of science is
studied. A method in psychology is a method of scientific research with the help of
which the characteristics of a person’s psychological and psychophysiological
development and changes in his mental activity are studied.
Psychology methods are specified in certain research methods. Based on one
method, many techniques can be created. The methodology is organized and carried
out to solve specific research goals and objectives. It has a clear description of the
procedure, strict instructions for the researcher and the subject, methods for recording
and processing the data obtained.
To date, an arsenal of diagnostic methods has been developed that can be used
to determine the levels of psychosocial development of an individual, including:
- observation;
- conversation;
- survey (interview and questionnaire);
- method of studying the products of activity;
- content analysis;
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- method of semantic differential;
- expert assessments;
- tests;
- projective methods.
Let's take a closer look at each of them.
Observation is a systematic and purposeful perception by the researcher of
human behavior and actions or the development features of the process
(phenomenon) being studied and their characteristic changes. Observation is not only
aimed at the perception of tangible phenomena, but it should also cause a
pedagogical, psychological or psychological-pedagogical understanding of the
diagnosed data and their scientific explanation, that is, the establishment of facts.
Diagnostic observation requires a certain theoretical justification, since the observer
deals not with direct processes, but with their manifestations in the form of
operations, actions, statements, experiences, usually associated with various forms of
collective activity. The indirect nature of activity is almost impossible to explain
without being based on scientific theory.
You can observe individual educational activities, various situations that arise
in the process of education, methods and techniques of the teacher’s educational
activities, that is, some pedagogical acts, in the structure of which individual elements
are distinguished, connected in a certain way. Therefore, observation should always
be accompanied by clearly defined tasks and indicators that the diagnostician will
record (appendix 1).
The use of the observation method ends with the analysis and statement of the
relationship between the observed facts and the stated assumptions or statements that
bring the researcher closer to understanding the causes of the emergence and
development of the phenomenon under study or the behavioral characteristics of the
person being studied.
There are many types of observations. They are classified according to
different criteria:
- based on time — continuous and discrete (episodic);
- in scope — broad (for the group as a whole or for the process of personality
development as such) and narrowly focused (identifying individual aspects of the
phenomenon);
- according to the type of connection between the observer and the observed —
not included (the position of the researcher is open) and included (the researcher acts
as a participant in the activities of the group, team). Participant observation is more
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productive: the observer himself is a direct participant, and often the organizer of the
educational process. However, such observation requires the skill of the teacher.
Observation as a research method has both positive and negative sides.
Difficulties that an observer may encounter are subjectivity or the presence of a
certain attitude, psychological oversaturation of the observer, the inability to more
carefully analyze individual aspects of the observed process, and a large investment
of time in obtaining an objective result.
The most reliable observation is in situations of free choice. The fact is that in
school life, only those students whose behavior deviates sufficiently from the norm
are easily diagnosed; most students in standard situations, acting as executors of
instructions, may not show their true upbringing.
For observation, it is desirable to create a situation of free choice, which is
based on the position of the struggle of motives as an internal determinant of actions.
In real life, the child constantly makes decisions about what to do in a given case:
help others or evade it, demand certain privileges for himself or obey general rules,
tell the truth or keep it silent, etc. It is in such situations that true education is
manifested. Of particular diagnostic value are situations when a child commits an act
associated with certain losses for himself, for example, in order to fulfill a duty, he
must sacrifice his free time or an interesting pastime. And although this situation is
created for diagnostic purposes, it also performs an educational function. For
example, when diagnosing humanity, the teacher offers students either to do
something only for the sake of the interests of their class, or to provide help to those
who need it (appendix 2).
Situations of free choice more often arise outside of school, when students do
not feel the pressure of external rules and are guided in behavior by internally
accepted norms. Excursions, hiking trips, and socially useful work are favorable in
this regard. Here the pupil’s true desire to do useful work and help his comrades is
revealed (appendix 3).
Conversation is a method of obtaining information about the subject, about
changes in his development under the influence of education during direct
communication (question-and-answer form of communication). A conversation
allows you to gain a deeper understanding of the psychological characteristics of
one’s personality, the nature of the motives of his actions and actions by analyzing
the data obtained in answers to posed and pre-thought-out questions. The
conversation itself is characterized by a relatively free structure of the plan, a mutual
exchange of assessments, opinions, and suggestions. It is carried out in the form of
personal communication according to a pre-compiled and thought-out program. With
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the help of a conversation, you can collect a considerable amount of facts that relate
to aspirations, beliefs, and attitudes towards the surrounding reality.
This method is often used in combination with others. The conversation may
be planned to confirm or refute data previously obtained using other methods;
accumulate quantitative information about the frequency of certain phenomena and
their qualitative (evaluative) characteristics.
When preparing for a conversation, a list of questions that need to be answered
is drawn up in advance. Often questions are disguised, some are improvised, but in
the end the effectiveness of the conversation is determined by clarifying the initial
questions.
The most important condition for a conversation is frankness between its
participants; only when an atmosphere of complete honesty is created in the
conversation does the inner world of the subject reveal itself. For example, a
teacher’s statement about personal experience that is consonant with the child’s
supposed experience often becomes the starting point in establishing mutual trust.
After all, the pupil, due to the limitations of his life experience, often assumes the
exclusivity of his own experiences and the inferiority of his capabilities. Even a slight
similarity between his personal experience and the experience of the teacher largely
frees the student from the feeling of his own inferiority and encourages him to be
frank with his interlocutor. A special role is played by the child’s confidence that his
trust will be used only in his interests.
The use of questionnaires is the most popular in personality psychology and
educational psychology. The tasks in them are presented in the form of statements or
questions, and the subject’s task is to independently report personal information
about himself, his relationships and experiences in the form of answers. They are
used to obtain data from the words of the subject.
The survey can be presented in two main forms: interviews (oral survey) and
questionnaires (written survey).
An interview is one of the survey options in which the point of view,
experience, and assessments of the interviewee are revealed, focusing on his answers
to any pre-formulated question or group of questions. An interview differs from a
conversation between two or more interlocutors as in a conversation each of them has
generally equal rights and can give an assessment, express their judgment, and
determine a position when the interviewer reveals the assessment and opinion of only
the person being interviewed (the respondent). The form of the interview can be free
(in the form of a conversation without strictly specifying the questions, but according
to a general program: a logical general strategy with free tactics); standardized (in the
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form of a detailed development of the entire procedure, including a general
conversation plan, sequence of questions, options for potential answers: sustainable
strategy and tactics); partially standardized (stable strategy, but tactics may vary).
A standardized interview form better meets the requirements of reliability and
objectivity for diagnostic methods. It makes it possible to obtain information about
different subjects that can be compared; limits the impact of extraneous influences,
allows you to get answers to all questions in the required sequence and in full.
However, this form can only be used when the interviewer is willing to make contact.
Otherwise, the result may be biased, since this type of interview can be perceived by
many people as an exam, which inhibits the sincerity and spontaneity of the
respondent. When working with children, the use of standardized interviews is very
rare. The psychologist tries to use more natural forms of conversation.
Questioning is one of the survey options in which the same goals are set and
achieved as in an interview, but based on the analysis of written responses from
respondents. Questioning is used to study the needs, interests, value orientations,
inclinations, character traits and personal qualities of a person.
Based on the nature of the responses, questionnaires are divided into closed
questionnaires (with prescribed answers) and open questionnaires (with free
answers).
In closed questionnaires, options for answers to the question are provided in
advance, from which the subject must choose one. The most common is a two- or
three-alternative choice of answers (for example, “yes, no”; “yes, no, difficult to
answer”). As a rule, questionnaires do not contain incorrect answers. They only
demonstrate the extent of the respondent’s agreement or disagreement with a
particular statement. The value of closed surveys lies in the simplicity of registration
and processing of the received data, as well as in the clear formalization of
assessment, which is convenient and necessary for mass surveys. At the same time,
this form of answer sometimes does not differentiate important information. Often
subjects have difficulty when they need to make a categorical decision.
Open-ended questionnaires offer free answers without any special restrictions;
subjects give an answer based on their reasoning. Standardization of analysis is
achieved by correlating free responses and standard categories. Open-ended
questionnaires, along with their advantages (obtaining detailed information about the
subject, conducting a qualitative analysis of answers), have some disadvantages: the
complexity of formalizing answers and their assessments, difficulties in interpreting
the results, the massiveness of the procedure and a large waste of time (appendix 4).
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When writing questions for a questionnaire, it is necessary to avoid mistakes
that significantly reduce the value of the data obtained. Overcoming some of them
can be achieved by following these recommendations:
1) it is necessary to avoid hidden clues to the desired answer in the question.
For example: “Do you think that in the joint work of the class, each student can better
demonstrate his social position?” With this question posed, the respondent quite
clearly represents the result desired by the researcher — proof that the public position
is connected with the joint work of the team;
2) achieve maximum logical connection of questions with each other, their
consistency and mutual verifiability;
3) control the compilation of the questionnaire: if more than 5–7 % of
respondents answer “I don’t know”, “I don’t understand” or do not give any answer
at all, this means that the questionnaire was compiled incorrectly, the questions are
not understood or are too complex. Sometimes refusal to answer the questions posed
indicates a negative attitude of the respondents towards the researcher;
4) strengthen the role of open questions for a comprehensive qualitative
analysis of judgments, attitudes, and motivations; closed questions in questionnaires
are, as a rule, convenient for quantitative analysis of responses.
The method of studying the products of activity involves the study of
written works, drawings, compositions, essays, poems, etc. For example, a fairly
reliable and practically accessible diagnostic method is essays of a personal nature,
expressing the student’s attitude to the situation being described. Of course, the
student tries to present any description and personal information about himself in a
more favorable light. Therefore, in order to obtain sufficiently reliable information
about a person, a diagnostic essay must be autobiographical in nature: the student
describes his attitude not in general, but by reflecting his own experience, his feelings
and actions. Social experience can be acquired by a student only at the level of
knowledge about what should be done; therefore, statements reflecting only
generalized social experience are insufficient for diagnosing good manners. Another
thing is the experience of emotional experiences, resolution of conflicting life
situations, the experience of self-determination in behavior and activity, etc. The
situation is invisible to the teacher, but for the student it can become a source of a
wide variety of experiences. It is this fact that is reflected in the works of many
writers who devoted their works to the analysis of the subtlest movements of
children’s mental life [N. K. Golubev].
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Unfortunately, the essays of modern schoolchildren are less frank, but more
openness can be obtained in the process of ordinary conversation in the form of oral
statements.
Along with various kinds of essays and on their basis, it is possible to conduct
such a diagnostic method in educational psychology as content analysis.
Content analysis is the selection of semantic units in the text with subsequent
statistical processing in the form of determining a quantitative ratio. This allows you
to establish the degree of expression of certain semantic information and translate the
content of the document into quantitative expression. Content analysis is not an
independent method, but is a specific form of studying qualitative materials based on
a special technique. This is due to the following features:
- accuracy is required when compiling single-order data;
- there should be enough essays to carry out their quantitative processing;
- the available essays accurately cover the object being studied;
- the results of quantitative processing of the available material can be
compared with other data.
The semantic differential method is a standardized technique that presents
the subject with a series of scales, the poles of which are specified using verbal
antonyms (good-evil, good-bad, etc.). Assessment consists of assignment to a certain
pole of the scale with a certain gradation.
The semantic differential is a line divided into equal segments, with marks, for
example:
1 2 3 4
5
few
not very little
neither less
nor more
not much
a lot of
For each concept there is a so-called semantic space in which all definitions
characterizing this concept are located.
In educational psychology, you can use a particular version of the semantic
differential — personal, which is good for diagnosing personality traits. It is used
when it is necessary to obtain purely subjective attitudes of an individual towards
himself or towards other people. The personality differential reflects a person’s
emotional and semantic ideas (appendix 5).
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