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The theory of mutual determinism was born from the teachings of A. Bandura,
who argued that personality cannot be considered as the result of the action of one of
three factors: environment, genetics or human activity. He introduces the concept of
“behavior” into a number of development conditions. The result of education is a
combination of the influences of the environment, a person and his behavior. The
latter is influenced by the environment and the individual, but the dependence of the
environment and the individual on the type of behavior is of no small importance.
Moreover, all these components can have different degrees of influence at different
times. Behavior can create certain relationships around itself. This cycle illustrates
the idea of mutual determinism [A. I. Savenkov].
Thus, there are a large number of theories of education and the foundations of
their content are built on different conceptual, authorial positions.
Currently, the generally accepted idea is that the implementation of genetic
information and the influence of environmental factors are interdependent aspects of
a single development process.
Let's look at educational models. The concept of a model can be interpreted in
two ways: in the first case, it is a certain theory showing the connection between
various aspects of human mental development; in the second, it represents a standard,
an ideal, an example that is worthy of imitation or copying. The educational model
is a certain sample, a standard that the educator strives to achieve using a system of
methods and techniques of pedagogical influence on the individual in order to arrive
at the ideal (in the formation of personality, activity, communication, behavior).
Let's consider the characteristics of the most famous models of education.
The pedagogical model of Ya. A. Comenius affirmed the priority of the values
and interests of society over personal needs and motivations. Education had to be
carried out in groups where unanimity reigns and there are no conflicts; any dissent is
not acceptable. Individual differences between students are subject to correction; the
teacher must focus on the “average” student and “adjust” the rest to the standard. As
a model (image) of an ideal student, Ya. A. Comenius saw a humble, patient and
meek man who should be an example of moderation, chastity and seriousness for
everyone. As a method of education, it was proposed to use an order, which must be
unconditionally executed by the pupil, which the teacher achieves in the most
humane ways possible.
J. Locke's system of pedagogical views was a model of education in which the
personal or individual is a secondary and sometimes forbidden phenomenon before
the influence of authoritative persons. The ideal student is a person who, from an
early age, has developed fear and respect for an important person. An effective
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method, according to J. Locke, is to subjugate the will of the student by any means,
including physical punishment.
The pedagogical system of J.-J. Rousseau is interesting. In it for the first time
individual values and interests are placed above public, collective ones. The teacher
must listen to the student, not limit his freedom, but help him in solving life
problems. As J.-J. Rousseau said: “A child must be taught to be, first of all, a man,
and then a judge, a soldier, a priest.” Therefore, a teacher should never order anything
to a student, nor even create the illusion that an adult is claiming power over him.
The teacher must only develop the abilities that the child has [J.-J. Rousseau].
The pedagogical concept created by the great writer L. N. Tolstoy also points
out that social life is a priority in personal development. But the social should not
destroy the freedom of education, which is seen in an independent community. As
L. N. Tolstoy figuratively says: “A teacher helps a child learn to swim. The student
chooses everything else himself — where to swim, how to swim, with whom to
swim.” There should be no directive methods of education, only a free community of
adults and children, in which an adult influences the child’s personality with the
power of his authority.
More recently, the system of collective education of A. S. Makarenko was
considered the most popular model in our country. In accordance with the general
idea in the USSR about the education of collectivism, socialist orientation, public
interests should have unconditional priority over individual values. The main means
of collective pedagogy is the guidance of adults through children's self-government.
An ideal child raised according to the model of A. S. Makarenko, is an individual
member of the team who must feel dependent on it, be devoted to its interests, defend
them and value them. Moreover, such a quality as personal initiative is allowed in
accordance with collective interests — only personal goals can be set that serve the
solution of a collective problem. Educational methods were used mainly through the
influence of the team on the individual, which is united thanks to the prospects for
joint activities and traditions.
The technocratic model is based on the ideas of neo-behaviorism. This
direction of psychology claims that the social occupies an important place because it
develops behavior as a socially approved norm, general behavioral standards in
society. A person, according to this theory, is a puppet who, through a combination of
reward and punishment, obediently responds to other people's orders and instructions.
The Japanese model of education is interesting, it is based on the idea of
community as a single Japanese philosophy of life. Student behavior is controlled
through the threat of alienation from a significant group. The child develops a desire
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not for competition, but for cooperation with other people. The values of the group to
which he belongs must take precedence over personal goals and interests, otherwise
the child may be alienated from it.
The model of spiritual education proclaims the well-being of society as a
whole, which becomes the most important consequence of the well-being of
everyone. In community a person is enriched spiritually; he is forbidden to trample
on the personal dignity of another, or cause offense.
Free education strives to develop the child’s own needs, consistent with the
needs of the people around him. Proponents of this model argue that a harmonious
personality is possible if its own individuality becomes the most important thing for
it. The ideal of a student is a free person who knows how to take responsibility for his
life and for his choice of spiritual values. The methods used are a democratic style of
communication, creating conditions for the formation of interests and freedom of
choice.
The humanistic model of education today can be called the most popular and
proclaimed system of human development. With it, personal values are paramount in
comparison with social ones. A person should not be prepared to serve society, but it
is necessary to develop a willingness to help, develop the ability to cooperate, and
responsibility for the fate of society. Raising free citizens will allow them to realize
their intellectual, personal and creative potential. Ideally, humanists say, every person
should self-actualize — maximally develop in himself all the abilities that are
inherent in him by nature. This result can be achieved through the method of
emotional support and personal acceptance.
Parenting is often seen as synonymous with psychosocial development, which
is a common focus of psychological theory and research.
Psychosocial development is understood as a process of constant formation,
growth of consciousness and self-awareness of a person, which occurs in interaction
with the surrounding social environment, in the system of training and education. In
the process of psychosocial development, the individual masters social methods of
interaction.
The concepts of psychosocial development form a certain system of ideas on
the processes, phenomena and patterns of development of the natural capabilities of
the human psyche in social conditions.
One of the first scientists to develop such a concept was E. H. Erickson. He
divided life into eight stages that a person experiences, regardless of his personal or
social developmental characteristics. These stages are universal and are the result of
the unfolding of the genetic “personality plan”. According to E. H. Erikson, all of
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them are accompanied by crises that arise in connection with an increase in the level
of social maturity of the individual and an increase in society’s demands on him. The
further development of a person depends on how the crisis is resolved: if a positive
turn occurs, then further positive, healthy formation is guaranteed; if the conflict is
not resolved, then a negative component is built into the internal structure of the
personality. Thus, the completion of one stage and the transition to the next always
ends with the resolution of some psychosocial conflict.
Let us consider the stages of psychosocial development in the periodization of
E. H. Erikson, which correspond to childhood.
The first stage (oral-sensory) covers the age from 0 to 1 year, when basal
(basic) feelings develop — trust / distrust, most often arising towards the mother. If
the crisis is resolved positively during this period, the child develops a strong
psychosocial quality — hope or confidence in the reliability and significance of his
own personality and cultural space.
The second stage (muscular-oral) corresponds to the age from 1 year to 3 years.
At the first stage of psychosocial development, the child received training to develop
self-control and independence. Previously, he was completely dependent on an adult,
but due to the fact that he begins to actively explore the world around him, his speech
develops, it becomes necessary to provide the child with some freedom of action on
the part of adults. Parents' understanding of the importance of organizing sufficient
autonomy for the child helps to develop his independence. In a negative scenario,
shame and doubt in one’s own strengths and abilities will form. The result of the
muscular-oral stage is the formation of willpower, the ability to exercise freedom of
choice.
The third stage (locomotor-genital) occurs between the ages of 3 and 6 years.
With a positive outcome of the scenario at the second stage, developed independence
moves to the level of initiative: the child acquires the ability to be active, he knows
how to plan and independently organize his activities. The appearance or absence of
guilt in the child will depend on how parents react to such manifestations of
“willfulness”. This happens if the parent does not allow him to act independently,
punishes him for curiosity, imagination, creativity, and the desire to show love. The
result of a successful resolution of the crisis at this stage is the development in
children of the ability to achieve their goals, to be active, enterprising, and energetic.
The fourth stage (latent) covers the age from 6 to 12 years. The child begins to
actively study at school, learns new rules and rituals, and masters discipline. His
character during this period develops quite smoothly, without clear signs of crisis.
With proper upbringing, a child develops a hard work ethic, a desire to engage in
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useful and necessary work, to win recognition, and thereby feel his own strength and
importance. Encouraging hard work leads to a sense of competence. It should be
noted that all this is closely related to academic success, with school grades, by which
children often assess their usefulness or inferiority.
Also, J. Piaget was one of the first to study the essence of moral development.
Moreover, he took his own previously developed theory of cognitive development as
the basis for his concept. In his understanding, morality acts as an individual’s respect
for the norms of society, concern for equality between people.
The scientist, by analogy with the already existing stages of cognitive
development, proposed by him within the framework of genetic psychology, puts
forward stages of the moral development of a child, which arise as a result of the
interaction of the formation of mental abilities and the expansion of assimilated social
experience.
The first period of ideas about moral standards is observed in children from
4 to 6 years old. J. Piaget called this stage the stage of moral realism, at which
children believe in the reality of actually existing norms and rules of morality and
justice, which have an indestructible essence. The naivety of their perception does not
yet give them the opportunity to evaluate the intentions and motives of people’s
behavior, therefore they judge an action on the basis of subsequent events that this act
will cause, that is, the more harm such behavior brings, the more immoral and
harmful it is for a person or society.
The second stage — moral relativism — occurs after 6 years. The child begins
to understand the relativity of rules and norms, which in fact are nothing more than
agreements between people, designed to create a certain order in society. An action
should be assessed based on the motives, intentions and goals that motivated the
person [J. Piaget].
Later, the work of this Swiss psychologist was continued and deepened by
L. Kohlberg, who identified three levels of moral development.
1. Pre-moral level (from 4 to 10 years): actions are explained by external
circumstances, the opinions or reasoning of other people are not taken into account.
In the process, the child goes through two stages:
- 1st stage — judgments are made depending on the consequences of the action
(reward or punishment);
- 2nd stage — judgments about an action are made in relation to the benefit that
can be obtained from it; personal interest is taken into account here.
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A child is characterized by obedience not because of conscious submission to
moral standards and the requirements of adults, but because of the fear of being
punished.
2. Conventional level (from 10 to 13 years): the child evaluates the actions and
actions of others and himself, adheres to the social role and social norms, while
focusing on the principles of other people. During the level process it also goes
through two stages:
- 3
rd
stage — judgments are based on whether the action will receive the
approval of other people or not;
- 4th stage — judgments are made in accordance with the established order,
respect for authority, laws.
The child is characterized by an orientation towards the opinions and
assessments of adults, and adaptation to public morality occurs.
3. Post-conventional level (from 13 years of age): the period of “true” morality,
when a person judges behavior based on his own criteria, which presupposes a
sufficient level of rational thinking. There are also two stages here:
- 5th stage — the act can be justified by respect for human rights: some social
laws can be violated in emergency situations;
- 6th stage — an action is regarded as “correct” if it is dictated by conscience
and carried out in the name of the value of life. Laws, rules and other people's
opinions fade into the background. Characteristic is the development of one’s own
moral views, beliefs, ideals and motives for moral behavior.
Moreover, L. Kohlberg claims that only 10 % of people over 16 years of age
reach the 6th stage.
The basis of modern practical psychology of education can be called the
provisions of humanistic personality psychology. First of all, for the reason that it
considers such issues as conscience and moral choice, human fears and hopes, faith,
the meaning of life, self-actualization, happiness — that is, everything that, in a
narrow applied aspect, interests practitioners involved in education, sociopsychological adaptation.
Humanistic psychology often provides justification for the goals of education,
namely: high self-worth of the individual, developed immunity to evil, acceptance of
one’s feelings and responsibility for one’s behavior, confidence and goodwill, the
ability and desire to understand others, the ability to resist manipulation and defend
one’s rights.
Thus, the psychology of education is based on numerous theories and models,
both historical and modern. The concepts of education are very diverse; they depend
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both on the general historical context of the development of pedagogy and
psychology, and on the original view of the author himself.
Test questions and assignments
1. What is the theory of education?
2. Conduct a critical analysis of parenting theories.
3. What is a parenting model?
4. Fill out the table of basic parenting models:
Characteristics of education models
Education model
The relationship
between personal
and public interests
The image
of an ideal pupil
Education
methods
5. Give a general description of one of the models of education.
6. Name the main stages of psychosocial development of personality in the
theory of E. H. Erickson.
7. Name the main stages of moral development of the individual in the theory
of J. Piaget.
8. Name the main stages of moral development of the individual in the theory
of L. Kohlberg.
9. What are the differences and similarities between the theories of moral
development by J. Piaget and L. Kohlberg?
10. Prepare an abstract on one of the proposed topics, revealing the main
approaches to the study of personality socialization:
- “Biogenetic theories (S. Hall and A. Gesell)”;
- “Sociogenetic theories (R. Benedict and M. Mead)”;
- “Introductionist theories (J. G. Mead and C. Cooley)”;
- “Socio-ecological approach (U. Bronfenbrenner)”;
- “Psychoanalytic theories (S. Freud, P. Blos, E. H. Erikson)”;
- “Moral realism and moral relativism of J. Piaget”;
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- “Stages of development of moral consciousness in the theory of Lawrence
Kohlberg”;
- “Determinants of learning through observation (B. F. Skinner and
A. Bandura).”
11. Which of the following statements by great thinkers about education do
you agree or disagree with? Choose one of them and write a short essay (reflection)
on this topic (1 page).
- “Let a child’s first lesson be obedience. Then the second may be what you
consider necessary” (Benjamin Franklin);
- “I condemn all violence in the education of a young soul, which is raised in
respect for honor and freedom. There is something slavish in severity and coercion,
something that cannot be done with the help of reason, prudence and skill, cannot be
achieved by force” (Michel Montaigne);
- “A lot can be achieved by severity, a lot by love, but most of all by
knowledge of the matter and justice, regardless of persons” (Johann Wolfgang
Goethe);
- “Education has the goal of making a person an independent being, that is, a
being with free will” (Georg Hegel);
- “They say that the best rule of politics is not to govern too much. This rule is
just as true in education” (Jean Paul);
- “The secret of successful education lies in respect for the student” (Ralph
Waldo Emerson);
- “To educate a person intellectually without educating him morally is to raise
a threat to society” (Theodore Roosevelt);
- “Giving children rewards all the time is not good. Through this they become
selfish, and from here a corrupt way of thinking develops” (Immanuel Kant);
- “Until the age of five, communicate with your son as with a king, from five to
fifteen — as with a servant, after fifteen — as with a friend” (ancient Indian
aphorism);
- “Punishment is not only a right, but also a duty in cases where punishment is
necessary, that is, I argue that a teacher can punish or not punish, but if his
conscience, his technical qualifications, his conviction say that he must punish, he has
no right to refuse punishment” (A. S. Makarenko);
- “Punishment frees you from the pangs of conscience” (F. M. Dostoevsky);
- “Education is a great thing: it decides a person’s fate” (V. G. Belinsky);
- “The teacher himself in many ways must be what he wants to make his pupil”
(V. I. Dal);
- “The upbringing of a child begins twenty years before his birth — with the
upbringing of his mother” (Napoleon).
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Recommended literature
1. Анциферова, Л. И. Связь морального сознания с нравственным
поведением человека (по материалам исследований Лоуренса Кольберга и его
школы) / Л. И. Анциферова // Психологический журнал. — 1999. — Т. 20. —
№ 3. — С. 5–17.
2. Бандура, А. Теория социального научения / А. Бандура. — Санкт-
Петербург : Евразия, 2000. — 318 с.
3. Выготский, Л. С. Собрание сочинений. Т. 3 / Л. С. Выготский. —
Москва : Педагогика, 1983. — 367 с.
4. Пиаже, Ж. Моральное суждение у ребенка / Ж. Пиаже ; пер. с
французского В. Большакова. — Москва : Академический Проект, 2006. —
479 с.
5. Руссо, Ж.-Ж. Исповедь / Ж.-Ж. Руссо ; пер. с французского. — Санкт-
Петербург : Азбука, 2012. — 636 с.
6. Савенков, А. И. Психология воспитания : учебное пособие для
академического бакалавриата / А. И. Савенков. — Москва : Юрайт, 2016. —
154 с.
1.2. MODERN PROBLEMS OF CHILDREN'S EDUCATION
AND WAYS TO SOLVE THEM
Now the change which is coming into our education is the shifting of the center
of gravity. It is a change, a revolution, not unlike that introduced
by Copernicus when the astronomical center shifted from the earth to the sun.
In this case the child becomes the sun about which the appliances
of education revolve; he is the center about which they are organized.
J. Dewey
The society is increasingly aware of the need to strengthen the tasks of raising
children and formulate strategic policies in this area. A positive role in this was
played by the development and adoption of the National Strategy of Action in the
Interests of Children for 2012–2017, the Strategy for the Development of Education
in the Russian Federation for the period until 2025, federal state educational
standards (FSES), as well as regional programs in the education system.
At the same time, the process of gradually overcoming contradictions in the
spheres of value, spiritual and moral life of society and a growing person is
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associated with a number of limiting factors that hinder the development of positive
trends both in family education and in the pedagogical process of educational
organizations and society.
Research by the Institute for the Study of Childhood, Family and Education of
the Russian Academy of Education records: the insufficiency of the educational
potential of social institutions, their positive impact on the life activity and spiritual
and moral development of children; increasing levels of family dysfunction;
misunderstanding and underestimation of the role of educational organizations in the
education of the younger generation.
Family
During the Soviet period, the family was an important, but not the decisive
factor in the development of a child. Public education was the dominant force in the
formation of personality, while the family was given secondary importance. Modern
pedagogical science undoubtedly recognizes the priority of family education in the
formation of a child’s self-awareness, his attitude to society, the world, people and
himself.
The state has enshrined this idea legislatively in the following wording of
Article 44 of the Education Law: “Parents (legal representatives) of minor students
have a priority right to educate and raise children over all other persons. They are
obliged to lay the foundations for the physical, moral and intellectual development of
the child’s personality” [Law on Education, 2012].
It is the family that carries social meaning in the younger generation’s
assimilation of the social experience necessary for life in society and the formation in
the child of a value system accepted in society. The educational role of the family, in
comparison with the economic, reproductive, communicative and other functions, is
most in demand and important in this historical period of the development of society.
Actually, the family, with its emotionally intimate, constant and real nature of
influence, is called upon to shape the character traits, beliefs, views, and worldview
of the child.
The current situation is such that there is a crisis in the family: it is performing
its educational function worse and worse. This is due to both objective and subjective
factors: deterioration of the economic situation and, as a consequence, decrease in
material wealth; urbanization of life, leading to a lack of intergenerational
communication and the destruction of foundations and traditions; low culture of
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