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educational goal, and secondly, is accessible, understood and accepted by the child
and, as a result, becomes a source of his socially approved activity” [V. M. Postavnev,
I. V. Postavneva].
Educational goals
The goals of education are the expected changes in a person that occur under
the purposeful influences of teachers, ideas about the result of pedagogical activity.
The psychological goal of education is contained, first of all, in the formation of
the motivational sphere, and secondly, in the ways of behavior in which the needs of
the individual can be embodied in an acceptable way for both society and the child.
Education is a concrete historical phenomenon, closely related to the socioeconomic, political and cultural conditions of society, as well as its religious and
socio-cultural characteristics.
The goals of education directly depend on the attitudes of society in general
and the state in particular. It is they who determine the list of qualities, properties and
personality traits, as well as its orientation, that are needed for a given period of
development of society. The goals of education depend on ideology, state objectives
(state development strategy), religious beliefs, social and economic system, and much
more. Global changes in society and the state lead to the revision and adoption of
other goals and objectives of individual education.
But there are also personal qualities that remain in demand in any society,
becoming enduring universal values. These are spirituality (the superiority of spiritual
moral ideals over current desires and material needs), decency (the desire to fulfill
one’s promises and the inability to commit immoral acts), freedom (external and
internal independence of a person and recognition of the same right for another
person), humanity (attention and love towards other people, respect for their views
and interests), responsibility (awareness of the consequences of one’s actions and
readiness to answer for them).
The general goal of modern education is to make children spiritually rich,
highly moral, internally free and responsible citizens of their state. The goal of a
modern school is to educate a child as a subject of life. The upbringing of a freely
developing person, a responsible person, involves the development in him from an
early age of the ability to use his own strengths (spiritual, cultural, social, family), as
well as the creation of a social environment in which the full realization of his life
potential is possible.
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In addition to the general ones, there are also special educational goals. They
can change when society, having completed one stage of its development, begins to
move on.
Special educational goals correspond to modern trends of social progress. Today,
there are the following approaches to determine the goals of education. They are:
- comprehensive and harmonious development of a morally stable, physically
perfect and spiritually rich personality;
- development of the one’s creative individuality and social competence,
familiarization of the individual with human culture;
- formation of an independent personality that is capable of positive change and
improvement of oneself and the surrounding reality;
- free development of personality;
- formation of the individual’s relational position to the world, to himself, with
himself and with the world;
- development of individual’s self-awareness, assistance in self-determination,
self-realization and self-affirmation.
The most important result of education is a person’s readiness and ability to
self-change (self-education, self-realization).
The organization and implementation of the pedagogical process of education
requires taking into account the basic laws of education. The following patterns of
education can be distinguished:
- child’s activity. Only the activity or subjectivity of the child will give the
teacher the opportunity to form socio-psychological new formations in the structure
of his personality. The measure of the teacher’s efforts must correspond to the extent
of the child’s capabilities. All educational tasks are solved only through the active
actions of the child, for example: physical education — through physical exercises;
moral — through a constant focus on the well-being of another person;
- taking into account current needs. The essence of children's activity in the
process of their upbringing is explained by their current needs. In developmental
psychology, certain universal age-related needs have been established: for
preschoolers, this is the need for play, activity, communication, recognition; for
children of primary school age — in knowledge, positive assessment. If a teacher
begins to get ahead of current needs, then he risks provoking passivity or resistance in
children. If age-related changes in the child’s needs are not taken into account, the
upbringing process is disrupted and made more difficult;
- proportional ratio of the efforts of the child and the adult. At the initial stage,
the teacher’s activity prevails over the child’s activity, then, on the contrary, the
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child’s activity increases, that is, gradually the teacher gives the child the initiative in
the activity, taking into account, of course, the zone of his actual development. Joint
activity gives the child the opportunity to feel like a subject of it, which is important
for the free creative development of the individual. The teacher must see the
boundaries of personal participation in children’s activities, be able to reduce
personal activity and give children full right to free choice and creativity in their own
activities;
- conditions for love and protection of the child. Children are able to develop
unhindered and freely and express their relationships only in conditions of security
and love. Therefore, upbringing contains an expression of love towards the child, the
ability to understand him, forgive his failures, protect him in situations of
subjectively experienced or real difficulty;
- a situation of success. The accompanying activity must culminate in a
situation of success. This means that the child must be given the opportunity to
subjectively experience achievements, internal satisfaction with participation in
activities, personal actions and results obtained. Positive reinforcement is the most
important condition for creating a situation of success;
- hidden nature of education. The child should not feel like an object of some
targeted pedagogical influence. The hidden position of the teacher is guaranteed by
joint activities, providing the child with personal freedom, the teacher’s interest in his
inner world, and a democratic and respectful style of communication. It was this
circumstance that A. S. Makarenko had in mind, when he wrote: “The educator must
always know the following: although all pupils understand that they are taught and
raised in a children’s institution, they really do not like to be subjected to special
pedagogical procedures... Therefore, the essence of the educator’s pedagogical position
should be hidden from the pupils and do not come to the fore” [A. S. Makarenko];
- holistic educational impact. The integrity of the individual dictates to parents
and teachers a holistic educational influence. It provides for the unity of education
and self-education, creativity and diligence, initiative, accurate execution of
instructions and independence.
Thus, the concept of “upbringing” is multifaceted due to the complexity of its
own phenomenology. Education is closely related to the main categories of
educational and social psychology — learning and socialization. The goals and
principles of education depend on the requirements that society places on the typical
qualities and characteristics of an individual.
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Test questions and assignments
1. Define the concept of “education” from the point of view of psychology.
2. What is common and different in the concepts of “education” and
“socialization”?
3. What is common and different in the concepts of “education” and
“training”?
4. List the types of education.
5. Name the principles of upbringing. Explain one of the patterns in more
detail.
Recommended literature
1. Божович, Л. И. Личность и ее формирование в детском возрасте /
Л. И. Божович. — Санкт-Петербург : Питер, 2009. — 400 с.
2. Братусь, Б. С. Нравственное сознание личности : психологическое
исследование / Б. С. Братусь. — Москва : Знание, 1985. — 64 с.
3. Выготский, Л. С. Педагогическая психология / Л. С. Выготский. —
Москва : АСТ, 2008. — 671 с.
4. Данилюк, А. Я. Концепция духовно-нравственного развития и
воспитания личности гражданина России / А. Я. Данилюк, А. М. Кондаков,
В. А. Тишков. — Москва : Просвещение, 2014. — 23 с.
5. Дьяченко, М. И. Краткий психологический словарь. / М. И. Дьяченко,
Л. А. Кандыбович. — Минск : Хэлтон, 1998. — 399 с.
6. Еникеев, М. И. Психологический энциклопедический словарь /
М. И. Еникеев. — Москва : Велби : Проспект, 2006. — 560 с.
7. Колеченко, А. К. Психология и технология воспитания : монография /
А. К. Колеченко. — Санкт-Петербург : КАРО, 2006. — 416 с.
8. Макаренко, А. С. О воспитании / А. С. Макаренко. — Москва : Изд-во
политической литературы, 1990. — 415 с.
9. Педагогический энциклопедический словарь / гл. ред. Б. М. Бим-Бад. —
Москва : Большая российская энциклопедия, 2003. — 528 с.
10. Российская педагогическая энциклопедия : в 2 томах. Т. 1. /
гл. ред. В. В. Давыдов. — Москва : Большая российская энциклопедия, 1993. —
608 с.
11. Головин, С. Ю. Словарь практического психолога / С. Ю. Головин. —
Москва : АСТ : Харвест. 1998. — 800 с.
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2.2. PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF EDUCATION
AND PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY1
Nothing will eradicate in us the firm belief that the time will come,
although perhaps not soon, when our descendants will remember
with surprise how long we neglected the matter of education
and how much we suffered from this negligence.
K. D. Ushinsky
Education is a purposeful factor in a person’s mental development, along with
training, environment, activity and heredity.
Educational psychology is part of a larger science — educational psychology,
which includes such sections as the psychology of learning, the psychology of
education and the psychology of pedagogical activity. In comparison with the
psychology of learning, the section of educational psychology in educational
psychology is much less developed.
The emergence of scientific understanding of the problems of educational
psychology is caused by many reasons. The main one is that teachers are often faced
with the need to better understand the child, help him solve moral problems, and find
the most adequate approach to him. For this, the knowledge that general psychology
has accumulated is not enough.
Educational psychology is a branch of psychological science that studies
psychological patterns and conditions for the formation of socially significant
personality traits. The laws of education are a real reflection of the objective reality of
education, which has common stable properties under different circumstances of the
pedagogical process.
Educational psychology studies the patterns and features of the formation of a
person’s character, his habits, needs, motives and modes of behavior, new feelings
and relationships. It also explores the principles of forming a person’s worldview —
a set of general information about the world, conscious universal human interests and
ideals, moral norms, social priorities and humanistic values — everything that
determines a person’s choice of behavior in life, his attitude towards the environment.
Without taking into account the psychological patterns of educational
influences, we deliberately doom pedagogical activity to low productivity.
1
All figures in this chapter are taken from «Цаплина О.В. Психология воспитания: учебное пособие».
36
The object of educational psychology is the peculiarities of the interaction of
educational measures with the psychological and personal characteristics of children.
The subject of educational psychology is the study of the psychological
essence of the educational process, its influence on personality development.
Educational psychology studies the general laws of active formation of one’s
personality, the peculiarities of organizing the educational process at different stages
of child development. The position that presupposes the possibility of active,
purposeful formation of personality in its development is the main unifying point of
educational psychology.
The goal of educational psychology is to reveal the psychological
mechanisms of the formation of a child’s personality, which is necessary to
understand the sources and conditions of its development.
Tasks of educational psychology:
1. Study of the psychological content of education, patterns of interaction and
relationships between the teacher and children.
2. Specifying the pedagogical goals of education and creating new methods for
constructing optimal educational situations.
3. Development of indicators of the effectiveness of educational influences and
the level of child upbringing.
4. Creation of psychological foundations for the humanization of the system of
education of the younger generation.
The focus of educational psychology is on the personality, its connections with
the environment and the environment that shapes it.
Different scientists include different systems and subsystems in the personality
structure: these are individual properties of the body (biochemical, general somatic,
properties of the nervous system), and individual mental properties (temperament,
mental properties of the individual), and individual socio-psychological (social roles).
Most psychological concepts in describing personality structure reflect models of
personality properties and psychodynamic characteristics.
Almost every psychologist who studied personality focused attention on one or
another personality formation, believing that it should not only enter into the structure
of the personality, but also become one of its main elements.
The main difficulty in resolving this issue lies in two points: firstly, in the
current absence of a unified theory of personality, and secondly, in the presence of an
out-of-date, traditional, but nevertheless not lost its meaning, idea of the structure of
personality, which developed a long time ago. Traditional teaching identifies in the
structure of personality such components as abilities, temperament, will, character,
emotions (feelings), motives and needs.
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So, there are a great many definitions of personality both in foreign and
domestic psychology. According to W. James, personality is a complex psychological
structure consisting of three classes of elements: physical, social and spiritual
personality.
Gordon Allport proposed the following definition of personality: it is a
dynamic organization within an individual of psychophysical systems that determines
his unique adaptation to the environment, his characteristic thinking and behavior
[G. Allport].
Among domestic psychologists, one can cite as an example V. N. Myasishchev,
who described personality as a system of relationships between a person and the
surrounding reality [V. N. Myasishchev].
Another Soviet psychologist S. L. Rubinstein characterized personality as the
result of the interaction of external influences with the internal conditions of the
individual, which include his orientation (needs, interests, attitudes, ideals,
worldviews, beliefs, etc.), abilities, character, temperament and other properties and
qualities [S. L. Rubinstein].
Professor B. S. Bratus argues that in a broad sense, personality includes a
system of moral norms and values, as well as character, motives of behavior and
methods of their implementation [B. S. Bratus].
Doctor of Psychological and Medical Sciences K. K. Platonov defined
personality as a stable system of socially significant traits that characterize an
individual as a member of a particular society or community [K. K. Platonov].
Educational psychology is designed to study precisely those elements of the
personality structure that are acquired in the process of its upbringing and
psychosocial development. The psychology of education in the personality structure
studies the mechanisms and patterns of formation of its following components:
- needs;
- motives;
- value orientations;
- interests;
- character;
- will.
Needs are a form of connection between living organisms and the outside
world, the source of their activity (behavior, activity) [Большой психологический
словарь, 2009. P. 490]. The emergence of needs prompts the individual to actively
search for ways to satisfy them. Needs become internal stimulants of activity —
motives that determine the direction of behavior in each specific situation.
Subjectively, needs are experienced in the form of emotionally charged desires,
drives, and aspirations, and the success of their implementation is in the form of
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evaluative emotions. Receiving emotional reinforcement in the process of activities
that satisfy human needs can stimulate the development of creative, spiritual,
aesthetic, and cognitive needs.
By forming reasonable, spiritual needs, education, in addition to satisfying them,
strives to elevate them. Spiritual needs are those aimed at self-improvement of a person.
Among them are the needs of a person to understand himself and the world, to form and
improve his abilities, the need for creativity, moral self-improvement and a number of
others. Their formation and development depend not only on the state of society in
which a person is located, but also on the level of his own psychological development:
the higher it is, the more diverse spiritual needs a person has [R. S. Nemov].
The representative of the humanistic personality theory, Abraham Maslow,
presents the personality structure as a dynamic system of needs. A highly developed
personality, in his understanding, represents the realization of seven groups of needs
that he satisfies throughout his life (fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Structure of a highly developed personality
(hierarchy of needs) according to A. Maslow
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The concept of “needs” is closely related to the concepts of “motives” and
“motivation”. It is the motive that becomes the object that a person tries to achieve
through the deployment of purposeful activity (fig. 2).
Fig. 2. General scheme of purposeful activities
This diagram shows how, in order to satisfy a need (П), an activity unfolds,
consisting of a series of actions (Д1, Д2, ... Дn) aimed at achieving goals (Ц1, Ц2, ...
Цn), ultimately subordinated to the task of achieving an object, motive (M) all
activities as a whole [B. S. Bratus].
Motives are stimulants of activity that develop under the influence of the
subject’s living conditions and determine the direction of his activity
[Педагогический энциклопедический словарь, 2003. P. 149].
Motives mean three interrelated aspects of one phenomenon:
a) internal motivations related to the need to satisfy the physical, social and
spiritual needs of a person;
b) their specific “objective” embodiment (what exactly is perceived by a
person as necessary or desirable);
c) a person’s awareness of the reason for his purposeful activity.
A. N. Leontyev defined the triad of attitude towards the surrounding world as
“need — motive — activity”. According to the scientist, a motive is an object of
need, material or ideal, sensually perceived or given only in imagination. This
understanding of motive connects activity with need, since need is also characterized
through its subject. The psychologist claims that the psychological analysis of needs
is transformed into an analysis of motives when it comes to specific human activities
[A. N. Leontyev].
Thus, activity always has a motive, often several motives or needs at the same
time. With many motives, there is a struggle between them. The final decision on
what to do in a certain situation is made by a conscious subject on the basis of an
internal system of values (value orientations).
In the process of choosing an activity, one of the motives becomes leading, and
the others become secondary. This motive, in addition to its motivating function,
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acquires a meaning-forming function, which gives the activity a certain personal
meaning — a conscious internal justification for the activity.
Motivation refers to the processes of “action”, the implementation of these
motives, the human activity that is directed and regulated by them. In this case,
motives act as causes, motivation — as a consequence, the process of human activity,
functioning or behavior.
Motivation significantly influences character. This is emphasized in the
statement of S. L. Rubinstein: “Every effective motive of behavior that acquires
stability is potentially a future character trait in its genesis. In motives, character traits
appear for the first time in the form of tendencies; action transforms them into stable
properties. The path to character formation therefore lies through the formation of
appropriate motives of behavior and the organization of actions aimed at
strengthening them” [S. L. Rubinshtein].
Value orientations express the preferences and aspirations of an individual in
relation to certain generalized human values (well-being, health, cognition, creativity,
work). Value orientations are formed on the basis of value attitudes, which in turn are
based on value attitudes.
A person’s value system is formed in the process of socialization and is the
main factor explaining his motivation and, consequently, behavior. Value orientations
can have both a moral social orientation and an antisocial one.
Interests are an emotionally charged focus of the subject on objects that are
significant to him. Interests are a motivational-regulatory mechanism of human behavior
and are determined by the hierarchy of needs formed in an individual. The breadth and
depth of a person’s interests determine the fullness of his life. Personality characteristics
include determining the range of interests of a given person [M. I. Enikeev]. It is the
needs, motives, interests that become the basis for the formation of a personality’s
orientation.
Character is an individual combination of stable mental characteristics of a
person, which determines a typical way of behavior for a given subject in certain life
conditions and circumstances [Большой психологический словарь, 2009. P. 717].
This is a synthesis of human relationships and behavior patterns.
In the structure of personality, character occupies a central place, and its role is
so significant that an equal sign is sometimes put between personality and character,
but this is not so. Character is one of the components of personality structure, like
will, temperament, abilities, etc.
It is necessary to distinguish between such concepts as character and
temperament. Of course, temperament leaves its mark on the formation of character,
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