Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Psychology of education. Study aid
.pdf
41
but there is a conceptual difference between them, which is important from the point
of view of the psychology of education.
Firstly, temperament is innate, and character is an acquired phenomenon
precisely in the process of developing first habits, then beliefs, worldview, etc. This
was argued by V. S. Merlin, defining temperament as innate properties of the psyche
that characterize the dynamic side of mental activity: intensity, direction, speed of
mental processes [V. S. Merlin]. Secondly, temperament depends on the properties of
the nervous system, character does not. Thirdly, character cannot be assessed, since
its dynamic properties cannot be good or bad, moral or immoral. Character, on the
contrary, is assessed in itself, by actions and statements. Fourthly, character has
cultural and historical characteristics, since each era and culture forms its own type of
character. As E. Fromm argued: “The character of a child is formed through the
character of the parents, in accordance with which the child develops. The character
of parents and their methods of education, on the one hand, are developed under the
influence of the social structure of the cultural environment. The average family is
“the psychological agency of society.” In it, the child adapts to his environment,
acquires a character that later introduces him to the tasks of social life. The child
appropriates to himself a character through which he wants to do what he must do,
and thereby he finds himself connected by his inner essence with his social class and
cultural environment” [E. Fromm].
But human temperament is not determined by cultural and historical time.
The character structure includes the following traits: volitional (purposefulness,
perseverance, determination, endurance, activity, conviction, patience), emotional
(passion, hot temper, depression, optimism), moral (honesty, consciousness of public
duty, responsibility, attentiveness, sensitivity, collectivism), business (hard work,
responsibility, accuracy), communication (responsiveness, sociability). Character
traits can have both a positive vector, socially approved characteristics, and
alternative aspects that are undesirable in its formation.
The main character traits include:
- strength (the ability to overcome difficulties, achieve a goal, defend one’s
beliefs, show courage);
- weakness (cowardice, indecisiveness, instability of views, compliance;
- originality (individuality of a person, which sharply distinguishes him from
others);
- integrity (consistency of a person’s relationships to various aspects of life);
- firmness (consistency, perseverance in achieving a set goal, upholding views,
adherence to principles).
42
The formation of character traits is influenced by the creation of appropriate
situational mental states. If a certain mental state appears often enough, it can become
entrenched over time and form as a character trait.
Character includes such an individual characteristic of a person as will — this
is a type of internal psychological control of a person over his behavior, associated
with consciousness and thinking, with decision-making and their implementation.
With the help of will, a person can influence himself and the world around him,
changing it according to his own understanding, based on the ideas, images, plans
and programs presented in his mind. The main psychological function of the will is to
strengthen motivation and improve, on this basis, the conscious regulation of human
actions.
Will is always a person’s self-restraint. By acting voluntarily, achieving a goal,
realizing one of many urgent needs, a person consciously deprives himself of the
opportunity to satisfy other needs. At the highest levels of its manifestation, will also
presupposes reliance on spiritual, moral and other higher goals, values and needs.
A child is not born with the presence of will; therefore, it is formed in
ontogenesis, and develops as one of the first character traits. Initially, such volitional
qualities as consciousness, responsibility and determination are cultivated, later
determination, courage, self-control and self-confidence are formed.
It is the above components of personality that are the product, result and
essence of education.
Psychological mechanisms of education are the formation of the need-
motivational sphere of the individual. Motivation should be understood as a person’s
internal motivations for one or another type of activity or action. Motivation is the
driving force behind an individual's conscious behavior. It occupies a leading place in
the structure of the personality, as it permeates the character, worldview, direction of
behavior and activity (fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Psychological mechanism of education
43
Each of the personal qualities is assumed to have developed, acquired or
transformed motivation. Personal quality is a motivation that manifests itself and is
consolidated in the behavior of a subject, assessed from the point of view of ethics
and moral norms. Consequently, what occurs is the formation and education not of
personality traits, but of the subject’s motivation.
The motivational sphere is a complex formation. Motives differ in the level of
arbitrariness. For example, a small child acts depending on immediate motives. These
are either organic needs or various kinds of natural interests that impulsively force the
child to act. Subsequently, he is guided by beliefs, ideals and views, his behavior is
directed arbitrarily by intentions and goals. As a result, the formed moral image of
the child will be determined by the content of beliefs, intentions, and ideals.
Among the motives of behavior, beliefs and ideals play an important role. Also
L. S. Vygotsky at one time raised the problem of the obligation to study the ideals of
a child, linking it with them to solve the problem of studying moral behavior. He
believed that a specific feature of mental development is that its result in the form of
a certain model is present in the social environment surrounding the child even before
the start of his development. Such models (samples) guide and coordinate the
education process. Beliefs express the child’s own attitude to various facts,
judgments, and events.
Motives can be episodic and appear only in a specific situation. But they can
also be stable and quite stable. In the process of ontogenesis, in a child, such motives
are gradually formed and become strong, which acquire the most important
importance. A distinct structure of a person’s motivational sphere is constructed,
which determines the orientation of the individual in the form of needs, interests,
worldviews, beliefs, ideals, and value orientations of the individual, which is of the
most significant importance in the process of its characterization.
Based on the theory of personality and activity of A. N. Leontiev, motives, to a
greater extent than needs, characterize one as a person [A. N. Leontiev]. Therefore, in
terms of studying the dynamics of the motivational sphere and the mechanisms of its
formation, the transformation of motives is of greater interest than the changes
occurring in human needs themselves. This is explained by the fact that needs over
time may remain the same as they were before, but motives may change. In addition,
it is motives, and not needs, that give human activity a purposeful and meaningful
character.
The formation of a hierarchy of motives that are based on human needs is the
object of the efforts of teachers, parents, and the social environment.
44
Pedagogical mechanisms of education are the methodological basis of the
educational process, containing a targeted system of methods and techniques of
pedagogical influence with the aim of shaping personality.
The education process can be represented in the following stages:
1) inclusion of a person in the system of relations of educational institutions;
2) acquisition and accumulation of experience;
3) interiorization of experience, that is, the transformation of the internal
structures of the human psyche due to their assimilation into certain behavior
(actions, statements, etc.) [Российская педагогическая энциклопедия].
Interiorization is a fundamental concept in modern psychology. Its main
content is the following: internal processes, mental formations, mental activity in
general come from external objective actions, historically established modes of
behavior, embodied in tools, techniques, meanings, norms, language, etc.
[F. I. Ivashchenko].
The upbringing process includes important components that trigger
psychological and pedagogical mechanisms for the formation of the needmotivational sphere. Initially, the cognitive component of the formation of
personality traits is formed (what do I know?). Next, it is necessary to cover the
emotional-evaluative component (how do I feel about this?). The next important
component is the motive of behavior, the desire to think and act in the same way as
an ideal or example (do I want the same?). At the final stage, the child moves to the
behavioral level (what am I doing?), when the motive turns into real action (fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Structure of the content of the education process
All components of the content of the education process are formed, including
through pedagogical influence. Any pedagogical impact is essentially psychological.
The socio-psychological activity of teachers is carried out in various forms and by
various means, targeting children with the aim of educating the psychological
45
characteristics of the individual (value orientations, opinions, attitudes, motives, moods,
behavioral stereotypes), mediating their behavior and activities [S. A. Elantseva].
In psychology, the upbringing and socialization of a child is sometimes
compared to a certain degree of formation of conformity. Moreover, the term
“conformity” is often used as a negative phenomenon of adaptation to the opinion of
the majority.
There is a distinction between internal personal conformity (a person changes
his opinion under pressure from a group; a person agrees that the group is right and
changes his initial opinion in accordance with the opinion of the group) and
demonstrative agreement with the group for various reasons (most likely to avoid
conflicts, troubles for close people or for yourself personally, while maintaining a
personal opinion deep down).
From this point of view, the well-known experiment with black and white
cones, sweet and salty porridge by V. S. Mukhina is very clear. The children quickly
and almost without hesitation agreed with the incorrect answer of their peers, who
called the white cone black and the salty porridge sweet.
Conformal behavior of preschoolers and primary schoolchildren is an objective
and real phenomenon. What is the reason? The child does not have sufficient
knowledge and cannot always verify the information that is given to him, and for this
reason he trusts the opinion of other people if it is shared by many. The child
succumbs to the pressure of group opinion because he wants to have a more accurate
image of reality and some of the advantages that are provided to group members. He
wants to avoid punishment if he refuses the accepted norm, he wants to continue to
interact with the group (family, children's group).
Consequently, children's conformity is one of the psychological mechanisms
for the transmission of culture, social inheritance, traditions, social attitudes and
patterns of behavior, that is, everything that constitutes a necessary aspect of the
socialization of the individual and the basis for the successful functioning of the
social system.
Thus, the educational process must be transformed into an interdisciplinary,
multidisciplinary one, in which both teachers and psychologists should be included.
Test questions and assignments
1. What does educational psychology study?
2. What is the subject and object of educational psychology? What are its
tasks?
46
3. How do the concepts of “development”, “training”, “socialization”,
“education” relate?
4. What are the psychological mechanisms of education and how do they relate
to pedagogical laws and principles?
5. Name the main components of personality structure.
6. From the following provisions, select those that most correctly reveal the
concept of “character” (give justification for your answer):
a) character traits are manifested in any circumstances and conditions;
b) character traits appear only in typical circumstances corresponding to them;
c) character traits are nothing more than a person’s attitude to certain aspects of
reality, namely to other people, society, activities, things, to oneself, to the
surrounding world (to the social world and events);
d) character traits are nothing more than certain ways of acting;
e) character reveals both the relationships of the individual and the methods of
action by which these relationships are realized;
f) the character is individually unique;
g) character traits are socially typical and individually unique;
h) character — a reflection of social relations.
7. Determine which of the following character traits belong to the following
groups: 1) moral traits; 2) strong-willed traits; 3) emotional traits; 4) relationships in
the team.
a) goodwill;
b) sociability;
c) duty and responsibility;
d) passion;
e) courage;
f) suggestibility (belief in omens, suspiciousness, etc.);
g) self-control in extreme situations;
h) observation;
i) diligence;
j) respect for comrades;
k) initiative;
m) patriotism.
8. In the student’s profile, highlight the core character traits. By what signs can
this be established?
“Tanya A., 9 years old. Always a cheerful and energetic girl, at the same time
even and calm. Tanya knows how to find the good in everything: in sunny weather
47
she is happy that she can walk and play; in the rain — because you don’t have to go
anywhere, you can sit quietly with the dolls. Her relationship with all the children is
friendly.
She is a good friend, will willingly do anything for others, and takes care of her
friends. Tanya knows how to do everything well — she cleans the room quickly and
thoroughly, is on duty well, and sews beautifully for dolls. Tanya is also a good
student. She does her homework quickly, her notebooks are clean and neat. At school
she is proactive and efficient. She does everything well and cheerfully. Everyone
loves her: both adults and children.”
9. Write an essay on one of the pedagogical parables of Sh. A. Amonashvili
(appendix 8).
Recommended literature
1. Большой психологический словарь / сост. и общ. ред. Б. Мещерякова,
В. Зинченко. — Москва : АСТ Москва ; Санкт-Петербург : Прайм-ЕВРОЗНАК,
2009. — 811 с.
2. Братусь, Б. С. Нравственное сознание личности : психологическое
исследование / Б. С. Братусь. — Москва : Знание, 1985. — 64 с.
3. Данилюк, А. Я. Концепция духовно-нравственного развития и
воспитания личности гражданина России / А. Я. Данилюк, А. М. Кондаков,
В. А. Тишков. — Москва : Просвещение, 2014. — 23 с.
4. Еникеев, М. И. Психологический энциклопедический словарь /
М. И. Еникеев. — Москва : Велби : Проспект, 2006. — 560 с.
5. Леонтьев, А. Н. Деятельность. Сознание. Личность / А. Н. Леонтьев. —
Москва : Смысл : Academia, 2004. — 345 с.
6. Маслоу, А. Г. Мотивация и личность / А. Г. Маслоу ; пер. с английского
Т. Гутман, Н. Мухина. — 3-е изд. — Москва : Питер, 2014. — 399 с.
7. Мерлин, В. С. Психология индивидуальности : избранные психо-
логические труды / В. С. Мерлин. — Москва : Изд-во МПСУ, 2009. — 543 с.
8. Мясищев, В. Н. Психология отношений : избранные психологические
труды / В. Н. Мясищев ; под ред. А. А. Бодалева. — Москва : Изд-во МПСУ,
2011. — 398 с.
9. Олпорт, Г. Становление личности : избранные труды / Г. Олпорт ; пер. с
английского Л. В. Трубицыной и Д. А. Леонтьева. — Москва : Смысл, 2002. —
462 с.
48
10. Педагогический энциклопедический словарь / гл. ред. Б. М. Бим-Бад. —
Москва : Большая российская энциклопедия, 2003. — 528 с.
11. Платонов, К. К. Структура и развитие личности / К. К. Платонов. —
Москва : Наука, 1986. — 256 с.
12. Российская педагогическая энциклопедия : в 2 томах. Т. 1 / гл. ред.
В. В. Давыдов. — Москва: Большая российская энциклопедия, 1993. — 608 с.
13. Рубинштейн, С. Л. Основы общей психологии / С. Л. Рубинштейн. —
Москва : Питер, 2015. — 705 с.
2.3. METHODS AND PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION
Raising a child requires more insight thinking,
deeper wisdom, than for government.
William Channing
The means and methods of education are understood as the methods of
organized and unorganized influence of the educator on the pupil in order to develop
in him certain personal qualities and forms of behavior. The means of education
include objects of material and spiritual culture. Among them are the following:
inclusion of the child in various kinds of creative activities using game forms (roleplaying, business, intellectual games, etc.), theatrical performances, excursions,
conferences, quizzes, holidays, workshops, travel, collective creative activities,
creative associations, social projects [T. S. Kosenko].
An education method is a specific way of influencing the consciousness,
feelings, and behavior of students in order to solve pedagogical problems. It is
realized through the communication and activities of the teacher, but the means can
influence outside his activities.
There is a large number of classifications of educational methods, since there is
no agreement on their selection, nomenclature, quantity and grounds on which they
should be systematized. Let's look at some of them.
In the classification of N. F. Golovanova identified four groups of educational
methods.
1. Methods for shaping the social experience of children. This group includes,
for example, a pedagogical requirement, an exercise, an assignment, an example, a
method of a free choice situation.
2. Methods for children to comprehend their social experience, motivate
activities and behavior (mainly verbal: story, lecture, conversation, discussion).
49
3. Methods of self-determination of a child’s personality: methods of self-
education.
4. Methods of stimulating and correcting the actions and attitudes of children in
the educational process: competition, encouragement, punishment [N. F. Golovanova].
Interesting classification by M. I. Rozhkova and L. V. Bayborodova, who
propose to distinguish methods of “education — self-education” depending on the
dominant impact on the essential sphere of a person and group the following methods
of influence on:
1) intellectual sphere: conviction, self-conviction;
2) motivational sphere: stimulation in the form of rewards and punishment;
3) emotional sphere: suggestion, self-hypnosis;
4) volitional sphere: direct and indirect demands, exercises;
5) the sphere of self-regulation: behavior correction, self-correction;
6) subject-practical sphere: educational situations, competition;
7) existential sphere: moral dilemmas, reflection [M. I. Rozhkov,
L. V. Bayborodova].
The educational methods that teachers most often use in practice include:
- conviction;
- exercise;
- example;
- competition;
- encouragement;
- punishment.
- coercion;
The method of persuasion is a logically based influence on the rational sphere
of the child’s consciousness. The purpose of beliefs is to create, change or strengthen
the student’s opinions, attitudes, and assessments so that he accepts the teacher’s
point of view and confidently follows it in his activities.
From a psychological point of view, the teacher, using the method of
persuasion, primarily focuses on the intellectual and cognitive sphere of the child’s
psyche. The essence of the method is to first obtain from a person internal agreement
with his own conclusions using logical arguments, and then, on this basis, to form
and fix new attitudes (or change old ones) that correspond to the goal.
Persuasion is carried out through word and deed. Persuasion with words occurs
through explanation, ethical conversation, suggestion, evidence, refutation. The
teacher gives logical conclusions, numbers, facts, examples. Persuasion by deed is
carried out on the personal experience of the child or on the experience of others
through actions, actions, current events of social life and the surrounding reality.
50
Beliefs encourage children to act, therefore, it is not so much judgments and
concepts as a moral conviction in the social necessity and personal usefulness of a
certain type of behavior that should be formed at the stage of development of
consciousness.
Conviction is determined by the purposefulness of pedagogical influence and
therefore can play the role of both evidence and suggestion or a combination of both.
If a teacher wants to convince a child of the truth of a certain position, then he turns
to his mind, but if he strives to cultivate love for his mother, the Motherland, then he
should be directed to the feelings of the student. In this case, persuasion is presented
as suggestion. The teacher, carrying out suggestion, activates the method of desired
action in the student with the awareness that he really needs to perform this action.
The use of persuasion as a method of education depends on the presence of
high authority of the teacher and is based on trust. It is especially high in the eyes of
children of primary school age, when any statement of the teacher is accepted
immediately and unconditionally as the truth. When convincing of something, the
teacher must rely on the child’s experience, then the content of the belief acquires
personal meaning, accessibility and specificity.
The exercise method is a systematically organized performance by the student
of various practical matters and actions with the aim of developing and educating his
personality.
The exercise method organizes the activities of students and stimulates positive
motives (various types of tasks for group and individual activities in the form of
demands, assignments, competitions, creating a situation of success, showing samples
and examples). It provides a conscious approach to the application of basic
knowledge of a moral and ethical nature, awareness of the consequences of one’s
behavior.
In the practice of educational work, mainly three types of exercises are used:
- exercise in useful activities in order to develop habits in children’s
communication with adults and with each other, in work. The important thing here is
that the usefulness of the exercise is understood by the child, so that he, experiencing
satisfaction and joy from the result, gets used to asserting himself in and through
work;
- regimented exercises carry the main pedagogical effect, which is contained
not in the application itself or its result, but in the establishment of a well-organized
process — the regime. Compliance with the optimal regime in the family and
educational organization leads to the synchronization of the psychophysiological
reactions of the body with external requirements. The regime allows you to create in
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]