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opportunities these situations open up for him in terms of meeting current social
needs. We are talking about the significant dependence of behavior on the situation,
that is, the so-called field behavior of children. In contrast, the usual social behavior
of most adults appears as field-independent, that is, determined primarily by the
individual, and not by the current situation.
In children under 10 years of age inclusive, the hierarchy of motives for social
behavior may change situationally. In one period, the child may have the motive of
affiliation (creating trusting, emotionally charged relationships) in the foreground, in
another — prosocial motives, in a third — the motive of achieving success. This
reflects both the general dynamics of the development of the personality of a junior
schoolchild and its instability, the child’s lack of a stable value system. In adults,
such a system of motives already exists and, in addition, they, as individuals, behave
more or less consistently in various situations.
The system of factors that are involved in motivating the social behavior of
preschoolers and primary schoolchildren is smaller in number than the totality of
factors involved in motivating the social behavior of adults. Among the factors that
contribute to the motivation of social behavior of children of preschool and primary
school age inclusive, the following can be mentioned: assessment of the degree of
difficulty of the task (goal), assessment of one’s own abilities, assessment of the
current situation from the point of view of the possibilities of achieving the goal.
Adequately assessed motivation factors may not include an assessment of the
likelihood of achieving different goals in a given situation, an assessment of the
benefits and losses obtained when choosing different courses of action.
In children of preschool and primary school age, the assessments they give to
various motivation factors and their consideration in practical social behavior focused
on achieving a goal will be insufficiently differentiated. This means that they are
likely to become correlated with each other. As for adults, such assessments are
differentiated and, apparently, do not correlate with each other. But the potential for a
child’s personal development lies precisely within the framework of reflection — the
first stage of a conscious attitude towards communication and joint activities, social
contacts.
In the 1st grade, the teacher becomes the most significant figure for the student.
All researchers who write about this age point to this. In the eyes of a child, the
teacher is omnipotent because he not only “knows everything,” but also “everyone
obeys him.” What the teacher said becomes the highest criterion of truth. Moreover,
such a trusting attitude does not depend in any way on the personality qualities of the
teacher himself. Due to the expressed desire of children to imitate him, there is a high
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responsibility for demonstrating patterns of social behavior. Indeed, at this age, the
attitudes of adults (and especially the teacher) are perceived by younger students
uncritically and often as the ultimate truth. This conceals a huge educational resource
and risk.
V. I. Slobodchikov notes that the teacher (unlike the kindergarten teacher) acts
as an authorized representative of society, armed with all means of control and
evaluation, acting on behalf of society. For the first time, the “child-adult” relationship
here becomes a kind of mediator between the child and social norms. It is through him
that children now learn about the correct, normal, generally accepted attitude of a
person towards certain phenomena of the surrounding reality [V. I. Slobodchikov].
This, in turn, gives rise to the desire of younger schoolchildren to turn to the
teacher for assessment of the correctness of their actions. A child at this age is
extremely sensitive to recognition from adults. He feels the need for a positive
assessment, seeks confirmation of his dignity by the teacher, awareness of his success
in mastering social norms.
Children at this age, however, as in preschool, are receptive to encouragement.
Words of approval and praise from adults are an incentive for them to assert
themselves in positive actions and to have confidence in their own capabilities.
Approval, expressed in a timely and skillful manner, encourages healthy self-esteem
in the child.
A teacher can stimulate a child’s personal growth by giving value judgments if
they are fair, strengthen his positive self-esteem, are moderately critical and at the
same time allow the child to feel the teacher’s faith in his possible future successes.
But these same judgments can contribute to personal regression, give rise to a feeling
of inferiority, and complicate his self-affirmation as a schoolchild if they sound like a
categorical verdict for him. Assessment can also give rise to a feeling of social
superiority and childish arrogance, since even younger schoolchildren perceive each
other through the prism of the teacher’s assessments.
The teacher must be demanding and consistent regarding students’ compliance
with standards, he will be more authoritative in the eyes of children. If the teacher
allows inconsistency in the rules, then students gradually stop following them.
In grades 2–3, the personality of the teacher turns out to be less significant for
the child, but the communication of the younger student with classmates becomes
important.
Over time, peer orientation increases more and more, and the child’s emotional
dependence on parents becomes less and less significant. It is at this age that the socalled natural separation should begin (that is, the gradual psychological separation of
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a child from an adult and his gaining independence and freedom). It is an obvious
means for a child’s social maturation, mental health and self-realization.
As a result, the control of a younger schoolchild by parents retains its
educational significance, but it should be more subtle and less protective. At the same
time, patterns of behavior of parents, interaction with them, as well as their
assessments of the child’s behavior are one of the most important factors in the
formation of strong forms of his moral behavior. Parents are still the most
authoritative figures in the social environment, therefore, assessments and reactions
on their part are also important for the child. At primary school age, a child copies
and appropriates the personal qualities of a significant adult, so parents and teachers
act as social models of behavior for children in the form of attitudes towards other
people.
At primary school age, the moral basis of close, trusting relationships —
friendship — begins to form. Thanks to it, the child masters social concepts, masters
social skills and develops self-esteem. In terms of the degree of emotional content, a
child’s communication with peers can be comradely and friendly. Friendly, that is,
emotionally less deep communication, is carried out mainly in the classroom and with
the same sex. Friendships are formed both in the classroom and outside it, and also
mainly with one’s own gender (only 11 % of girls and 8 % of boys are with the
opposite gender). At primary school age, group friendships are the most common.
The number of children in such groups is 2–3 in the 1st grade, 4–5 in the 3rd grade.
The personal characteristics of children, which most often serve as the basis for
mutual choices, change with age: if in the 1st (85 %) and 2nd (70 %) grades mutual
choices are determined by the educational failures or successes of children, then at an
older age a student’s position in a group is to a greater extent determined by his
personal qualities and the characteristic features of the group itself.
For a teacher involved in the education of primary schoolchildren, the priority
goal is to create favorable psychological and pedagogical conditions for the child to
master the most general socially significant norms. They are presented to the child
precisely as norms of behavior. Their knowledge becomes the basis for the formation
of socially important relationships and gaining experience of socially significant
action. They will become the basis for the child’s personal growth in the future, at
other age stages of his development — in adolescence and juvenility.
When entering school, a child objectively enters a social system built on
certain norms that are significant to it. And his compliance with the status of a
schoolchild the child associates with the need to master these norms. A junior
schoolchild sets himself such a task and tries to solve it. In teenage and high school,
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you won’t see such pedantic observance of school etiquette, diligently folded hands
in front of one another, school supplies neatly placed in a pile on the edge of the desk,
a thirst for approval from adults for the correctness of one’s behavior, mutual
encouragement to follow established rules and constant appeals to the teacher
regarding their non-compliance by one of his classmates [P. V. Stepanov].
V. S. Mukhina believes that at primary school age, a significant achievement in
the development of a child’s personality is the predominance of the motive “I must”
over “I want”: the child knows what “should”, “obliged” means; he awakens a feeling
of pride or shame depending on the action; he can be proud not only of actions
approved by adults, but also of his positive qualities, which he himself is well aware
of; he may be ashamed not only of an offense noticed by an adult, but also of his own
manifestations that he himself evaluates as unworthy. We can say that the
characteristics of “being good” and “being correct” are identified in the minds of a
primary school student. However, one should not assume that he is focused on a
thoughtless perception of all rules. The conscious desire to master social norms
encourages the child to experience the extent of admissibility, the possibility of
breaking these rules, and avoiding their implementation.
Thus, the family continues to play the main role in raising a child of primary
school age, but the most important is the influence of the teacher. Of great
importance is the teacher’s pedagogical and personal assessment of the personality of
a junior schoolchild, which influence both the formation of self-esteem, the “I” image
of the child, and the establishment of his social status in a group of children.
Social behavior and its motives are not conscious and stable. Friendships, most
often group ones, begin to form.
Psychological features of raising teenage children. Of particular importance for
the development of social needs is adolescence, in which communication becomes
the leading activity. In addition, this period is characterized by an active desire for
physical development and, accordingly, the formation of the need for physical selfimprovement. During these years, many teenagers actively begin to engage in
physical education in order to improve their appearance, attaching great importance
to this.
In the middle grades, adolescents' imitation of adults is replaced by
mutual imitation. In high school, you can see a change in the subject of imitation:
the value orientations of significant people become more valuable in personal
characteristics. Imitation is no longer as significant as in previous years, since the
assimilation of values and moral norms is carried out at a more conscious level, based
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on moral values and analysis of the life position of people who are very important to
the young man.
Adolescence is a sensitive period for the development of communicative
character traits. Communication with peers as a leading activity allows one to
develop business and strong-willed character qualities. During adolescence, character
stabilizes, it becomes stable, and subsequently may not change for a long time, and
sometimes it is fixed for life.
Senior school age can be considered as a period of consolidation of the
character of an adult. This process occurs during communication not only with peers,
but also with adults who begin to acquire their authority. This is the final phase of the
formation of a person’s personality, the formation of the “I” concept. It is in
adolescence that two vital questions are first posed and resolved: “who to be?” and
“what should I be?” The first question is related to the choice of profession, and the
second is related to the choice of a system of values and moral standards. By the end
of high school, basic needs and interests are already formed. In addition, they already
show significant and stable individual differences.
Thus, the psychological features of children of different ages are very different
and significant, and the teacher needs to know them well and use them correctly in
his professional activities.
The specific content of the educational process at the appropriate stage should
take into account the driving forces of the child’s development specific to this period
and the emerging characteristics of his personality.
Test questions and assignments
1. Name the psychological features of raising children of early and preschool age.
2. Name the psychological features of raising children of primary school age.
3. Name the psychological features of raising teenage children.
4. Name the main methods of education in preschool, primary school and
adolescence.
5. Develop a summary of extracurricular activities on the following topics:
- “My desk neighbor”;
- “What I dream about”;
- “A kind word is like a clear day”;
- “Our little brothers”;
- “Day of the Elderly”;
- “Treasury of good deeds”;
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- “The story of one family photograph”;
- “How to make peace after a quarrel”;
- “Let's compliment each other”;
- “Recess at school: important rules”;
- “Honesty is the best habit”;
- “Hurry to do good.”
6. Solve the following educational situations:
Situation
Adequate solution
Inadequate solution
Preschool age
The child called his grandmother
rudely, knowing for sure that his
words were prohibited in the family
The child took money from his
mother's wallet without permission
The child, angry, deliberately
broke...
Child bullies younger brother
The child makes a row at the table,
throws cutlery, kicks others
The child does not want to dress
himself
Situation
Adequate solution
Inadequate solution
Junior school age
The father says it’s time for his son
to get ready for school. The son
reluctantly walks, exaggeratedly
sluggish movements and unpleasant
grimaces showing how his parents
are torturing him
A child, coming home from school,
throws his briefcase and scatters his
things
The child constantly snitches on his
classmates
The student says to the teacher: “I
won’t go to the next two lessons that
you teach, because at this time I want
to go out with friends.”
A student tells the teacher: “I forgot
to bring my notebook again (to do
my homework, etc.).”
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A student, clearly demonstrating his
bad attitude towards one of his
classmates, says: “I don’t want to
work (study) with him.”
Guys laugh at a girl from a deeply
religious family
In the class there are twin girls from
a large family; they dress modestly
and never bring breakfast or chewing
gum to school. Children treat them
with disdain
There is a sick child in the class
(with poor diction, limping, etc.).
The guys avoid him and ridicule him
In the classroom there is a group of
refugee children who are shunned by
their classmates
Recommended literature
1. Божович, Л. И. Личность и ее формирование в детском возрасте /
Л. И. Божович. — Санкт-Петербург : Питер, 2009. — 400 с.
2. Слободчиков, В. И. Психология образования человека: становление
субъектности в образовательных процессах / В. И. Слободчиков, Е. И. Исаев. —
Москва : Изд-во ПСТГУ, 2014. — 431 с.
3. Степанов, П. В. Воспитание и внеурочная деятельность в стандарте
начального общего образования / П. В. Степанов, И. В. Степанова. — Москва :
Педагогический Поиск, 2011. — 96 с.
5.2. TECHNOLOGY IN THE EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY OF A TEACHER2
If you know the means to strengthen the body, temper the will,
ennoble the heart, refine the mind and balance the mind,
then you are an educator.
C. Letourneau
The main task of a modern school is “to reveal the abilities of each student, to
educate a decent and patriotic person, an individual ready for life in a high-tech
world” (National Educational Initiative “Our New School”).
2
All figures in this chapter are taken from «Цаплина О.В. Психология воспитания: учебное пособие».
108
The goal of the educational work of a modern school is to help a growing
person become a subject of his own life, capable of creative choice, reasonable
selection of a life position, and the independent development of ideas.
In modern pedagogical practice, technologies of development, training and
education are a popular method of education.
Technology is usually a firmly established procedure that corresponds to a
strictly defined sequence of operations and leads to the achievement of the planned
result. In technique, many technologies are used to ensure the exact implementation
of the preliminary plan. These could be technologies for baking bread, making bricks,
or building a house. The conveniences and benefits of using technology in mass
production are obvious: simplicity, clarity, mechanicalness and even automaticity of
actions.
The following distinctive features of the technologies are distinguished:
- a given goal — a well-presented final result (a product with certain
characteristics);
- stages of actions that lead to a certain final result;
- accompanying tools that ensure the implementation of these actions;
- impersonality of both the result and the process;
- dividing the process technology into some individual elements in order to
then recreate these elements in another place or by other specially trained people.
The technological revolution has led to the idea that technologization is also
possible in social processes, in particular in pedagogical systems and phenomena. Its
active use is in the interests of optimizing the pedagogical process, increasing the
efficiency of educational activities and reducing the costs of human and material
resources.
The development of educational processes in modern society, the vast
experience of pedagogical innovations, leadership schools and innovative teachers,
the results of psychological and pedagogical research constantly require
generalization and systematization. Therefore, one of the means to solve this problem
is a technological approach.
The use of the term “technology” in pedagogical reality occurs from the point
of view of different positions, for example, as:
- means for the educational process;
- communication process;
- multidimensional, systemic process.
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Basically, the result of technologization of the educational process was an
attempts to develop teaching technologies, but over the past decades, scientists have
been actively searching for educational technologies.
In the work of G. K. Selevko pedagogical technology is presented as “a system
of functioning of all components of the pedagogical process, built on a scientific basis,
programmed in time and space and leading to the intended results” [G. K. Selevko],
that is, pedagogical technology is a rationally organized procedure aimed at planned
result.
V. V. Guzeev defines pedagogical technology as “a complex that consists of
some representation of the planned learning (upbringing) results; diagnostic tools for
the current state of students; a set of teaching (upbringing) models; criteria for
choosing the optimal model for given specific conditions” [V. V. Guzeev].
Pedagogical technology has a number of distinctive qualities:
1) consistency (integrity and complexity);
2) scientific character (conceptual, predictive, developmental);
3) structuredness (hierarchical, algorithmic, logical, continuity, variability,
flexibility, procedural);
4) controllability (diagnosticity, predictability, efficiency, optimality,
reproducibility).
The technology of pedagogical educational influence is a special type of
teacher activity, the purpose of which is to achieve positive changes in the
psychological personal characteristics of the student (needs, relationships, attitudes,
behavior patterns, states).
Educational technology is a system of methods, techniques and procedures of
educational activities developed by science and selected by practice, which allow
them to be presented at the level of mastery, in other words, guaranteed and of high
quality. A. S. Makarenko called it “pedagogical instrumentation.”
The modern school educational system (technology) is a unity of
interconnected elements:
a) goals, that is, the totality of those ideas for the sake of which it is created;
b) the entity organizing activities to achieve the intended goals;
c) activities in communication and relationships that integrate the subject into a
certain integrity (team);
d) the environment of the system mastered by the named subject;
e) management that ensures the integration of the listed components into an
integral system.
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There is often confusion in the concepts of “technology” and “methodology”,
so it is necessary to understand the common and different aspects of these
phenomena. Most often we encounter the concept of “methodology” in the context of
teaching an academic discipline. From this point of view, the methodology explores
and suggests to the teacher the laws of the process of transferring (presentation and
assimilation) to students the content of knowledge and develops their application in
practice.
Pedagogical technology has a broader content, since it is one of the means of
pedagogical activity. Technology as a general thing includes a set of methods, forms
and means, that is, everything that constitutes the essence of the methodology. In
addition, the author’s technology contains professional experience, life views,
attitudes, etc.
Based on the structure of education and the main components of this process,
some scientists propose the technological use of each method separately (fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Scheme of the educational method
Using this scheme involves choosing a method of education, depending on the
situation, and then following the algorithm proposed above.
In accordance with the structure of the content of education, teachers can use
technology or a sequence of actions abstracted from the real features of the
pedagogical process and specific children. It is assumed that, knowing this algorithm
of actions, every teacher, regardless of his individual qualities and experience, can
learn to apply any methods of education to any children, not determined by their
individual abilities, character and values.
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