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Файл:Master English in Science. Учебное пособие по изучению лингвистических особенностей иностранного языка естественнонаучных специальностей
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1. READING SECTION
31
The formation of a supercontinent on Earth could wipe out humans and any
other mammals that are still around in 250m years, according to a study.
The mass extinction would be caused primarily by heat stress as a result
of greater volcanic activity that would put twice as much carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere as current levels, an older sun that would emit more radiation and the
extent of inland deserts in the tropics.
The supercontinent Pangea Ultima is expected to take shape when all the current continents merge together in the distant future. The paper, which was published on Monday in Nature Geoscience, is the first attempt to model how extreme
the climate might become from that geological rearrangement.
Using a UK Met Office climate model and the University of Bristol supercomputer, the simulation also provided tectonic clues to past extinction events
and data that could be of use to astronomers looking for other habitable planets [7].
In the era of Pangea Ultima, the temperature extremes are expected to be
dramatic, with more humidity than now along the coasts and extremely arid
conditions in the vast inland deserts. In this world, global temperatures could
rise 15C (and up to 30C on land) above pre-industrial levels, which would return the world to the extreme heat it last went through in the Permian–Triassic
era, 260m years ago, when more than 90% of species were eradicated. Protracted periods of heat in excess of 40C would be beyond the tolerance levels
of many life forms.
Mammals have been the world’s great evolutionary success story, particularly
since the demise of the dinosaurs during the last great extinction event, but mammals’ ability to adapt to heat may be too slow. That includes humans, which have
been on Earth for a relatively short period.
Hominids emerged about 6m years ago when the world was a much cooler
place than it had been during the dinosaur period. Although our species has developed remarkably quickly, we would face enormous challenges in the era of Pangea Ultima, assuming we make it through the current self-caused climate crisis
and mass extinction of other species.
In addition to the direct impacts of heat, there would be severe food supply
problems due to a collapse of vegetation. The paper notes that most plants become
stressed at temperatures over 40C and break down completely if exposed to 60C
for protracted periods.
MODULE 2. Geology as a Science
32
The authors acknowledge their prediction has a high level of uncertainty due
to the ultra-long-term timeframe, but they hope the study, which was initiated during
the pandemic lockdown, will provide useful insights into past mass extinction
events and the possible habitability of other planets.
Until now, when astronomers have scanned our galaxy for planets that might
provide an alternative home for humans, they have mainly considered the distance
from the nearest sun and the presence of water. The new study indicates that tectonics are also an important factor in determining the climate of a planet [7].
Ex. 2. Answer the questions
1. What could the formation of a supercontinent on Earth could make?
2. When did hominids emerge?
3. How has the species developed?
4. What does the new study indicate?
Ex. 3. Say if these statements are true, false or not stated
1. The formation of a supercontinent on Earth could not wipe out humans and
any other mammals.
2. Mammals have been the world’s great evolutionary success story, particu-
larly since the demise of the ancient animals.
3. In addition to the direct effect of heat, there would be hard food supply
problems due to a collapse of vegetation.
Ex.4. Read and review the article. Use the phrases
- I have read the paper under the title “…”
- It comes from…. (it was published in….)
- The key issue of the article is….
- Much attention is given to…..
- The paper reports on….
- I’d like to mention briefly that…
- The author claims that….
- To underline … the author uses…
- It should be said that……
- In conclusion the author dwells on ….
- I’d recommend this paper to…..
- I find it interesting/of great importance, because……
1. READING SECTION
33
Ex. 5. Read and translate the following text.
McGill University study (Canada)
The anticipatedmelting of the massive West Antarctic Ice Sheet could be
slowed by two big factors that are largely overlooked in current computer models,
according to a new study.
The findings, published online in Nature Communications, suggest that the
impact on global sea levels from the retreating ice sheet could be less drastic –
or at least more gradual – than recent computer simulations have indicated.
Over the past year, numerous studies have warned that parts of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet are on the verge of a runaway retreat. Just last week a high-profile
research paper forecast that this could lead eventually to a rise in global sea levels
of as much as three metres.
The authors of the new Nature Communications paper, however, focus on two
geophysical elements that they say aren't adequately reflected in computer simulations for this region: the surprisingly powerful gravitational pull of the immense
ice sheet on surrounding water, and the unusually fluid nature of the mantle beneath the bedrock that the ice sits on.
“The fate of the polar ice sheets in a warming world is a major concern for
policy makers – and attention is rightly focused on the importance of restraining
CO2 emissions and preparing for rising sea levels,” says lead author Natalya
Gomez, an assistant professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences at McGill University in Montreal. “But our study shows that for Antarctica, in particular, computer
models also need to take into account how gravitational effects and variations
in Earth structure could affect the pace of future ice-sheet loss.”
The gravity effect
Most people think of gravity as the force that keeps our feet on the ground. But
any large body – such as a massive expanse of ice – exerts a gravitational pull
on other bodies, including water.
As the West Antarctic Ice Sheet melts, the researchers’ project, the reduction
in its mass would reduce the gravitational pull to such an extent that it would
lower sharply the sea level near the ice. This, in turn, would slow the projected
pace of retreat of the ice sheet [6, p. 20].
The elasticity effect
Gomez and co-authors David Pollard of Pennsylvania State University and
David Holland of New York University also factor another important variable into
MODULE 2. Geology as a Science
34
their simulations. When an ice sheet retreats, the solid Earth beneath it, freed from
the load of the ice, rebounds upward. This rebound occurs in two parts: an elastic
component that happens right away, and a viscous component that happens over
hundreds to thousands of years. (The Earth’s interior – or mantle – flows like
a fluid but very slowly because it is very viscous).
The West Antarctic sits atop a region where the mantle flows more easily than
in other parts of the Earth. So the land there will pop up faster than scientists – and
their computer models – would expect based on the average viscosity of the
Earth’s mantle.
“Our simulations show that when we assume a structure for the Earth’s interior
that resembles the structure underneath the West Antarctic, the Earth’s surface
rebounds higher and more quickly near the edge of the retreating ice sheet,” says
co-author Holland of NYU. “This makes the water along that edge shallower,
which slows the retreat of the ice sheet.”
CO2 emissions a crucial factor
The researchers’ simulations also confirm that the levels of future CO2
emissions will be a crucial factor in the pace of retreat for the region’s ice. “The
lower the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere, the more the geophysical factors will
be able to help stem the ice’s retreat,” Gomez says. “The greater the emissions,
the more the geophysical forces risk being overwhelmed by the strength
of warming.” [6, p. 21]
Ex. 6. Read the text about duties and responsibilities of geologists
Geologists undertake technical and scientific analysis of rock, soil, groundwater and other conditions to determine the likely impact that major construction developments will have on sites.
What does an engineering geologist do?
Geologists are responsible for identifying the geological factors that could affect construction projects. They analyse ground materials to assess their risk factors and advise on the best procedures for developments and the suitability of construction materials [6, p. 22].
Geologists have a similar job function to geotechnical engineers and some
who study engineering geology go on to be geotechnical engineers. However, geotechnical engineering can arguably be seen as a specialism of civil engineering;
engineering geologists, meanwhile, are first and foremost geologists who apply
1. READING SECTION
35
geological principles to construction works to determine where certain kinds
of earth materials occur. It’s a grey area, though, and geological professionals often debate the definitions between themselves. If engineering geologists work for
an engineering consultancy, they will usually be working in the same team as geotechnical engineers and that team is often called ‘geotechnical’ or ‘ground engi-
neering’.
Typical responsibilities of geologists include:
● collecting, analysing and interpreting data
● accessing, using and analysing site information (such as radar images, aerial
photographs, reports and geological maps) prior to site investigations
● planning, organising and undertaking field work/site investigations by cre-
ating boreholes and trial pits
● preparing reports
● providing advice and information to clients on a range of issues including,
for example, proposed use, subsidence and construction materials
● assessing and minimising the risks of man-made and natural hazards in the
environment
● ensuring that projects keep to budgets and timescales
● managing and liaising with construction engineers, consultants, contractors
and geotechnical engineers
● when more senior, managing projects and setting objectives
Engineering geologists could specialise in natural hazards, hydrogeology, rock
mechanics, petrology and geochemistry – to name but a few specialist areas.
Engineering geologists tend to split their time between office and sites: office
hours are typical, but site work can involve longer days [6, p. 23].
Key skills for engineering geologists
● The ability to adapt to different working conditions and things changing
● Team working and communication skills
● The ability to analyze and interpret data
● Attention to detail
● Problem solving
● Time management
● Enjoying working out of doors as well as in an office
Also: because of travelling to sites, a full driving licence is often required
or preferred.
MODULE 2. Geology as a Science
36
Ex. 7. Read the article about environmental geology and make up five
questions to it
Spotlight: Environmental geology
Environmental geologists, through geologic data and application of ‘principles
of geology’, can identify / remediate / prevent / resolve human-induced environmental issues before they become problematic.
Humans have entered a critical phase in our history. As the earth’s natural
resources shrink and our population grows, there are critical decisions to be
made. Foremost amongst them is understanding how the use of such resources
affects the quality of life and the environment, and then using that knowledge
to make informed and responsible decisions. Indeed, these are decisions that will
underpin the very standard of living and also govern the quality of the environment. Mistakes made now will come back to haunt future generations!
Pollution and contaminated land management is yet another area where environmental geologists are becoming increasingly involved [6, p. 25].
The earth’s own chemical, organic and mechanical processes affect humans
every day in some way, shape or form. Understanding all these processes geologically, on both sides of the equation, and how they impact upon, and interact with,
each other, is the role of environmental geology.
Environmental vs Engineering Geology
While environmental geology is closely linked with engineering geology there
are significant differences between the two. Where engineering geology focuses
on terrafirma and how geological activities within it affect structures built on it
from an engineering perspective, environmental geology encompasses the wide
range of human aspects within these processes.
Engineering geologists, for example, may consult with civil engineers around
the suitability of underlying geological structures for various types of infrastructure. They provide information about the potential impacts on the structural integrity of said infrastructure from local geologic activities, and play an integral role
in minimising the effects of any adverse earth events (earthquakes, landslides, etc.)
on infrastructure. Environmental geologists also contribute to these discussions
but they will seek to further assess the potential geologic impacts on human populations and local ecosystems.
1. READING SECTION
37
In other words, an engineering geologist will tell how and why infrastructure
reacts to an adverse geological event and why something should or shouldn’t
be built in that particular geological location from a structural perspective. An environmental geologist will tell how and why that geologic event affects people
(including their infrastructure) and the environment, and why something should
or shouldn’t be built in that particular geological location from a population and
environmental perspective [6, p. 26].
Environmental geology courses typically focus on 5 main areas:
● Human Population Growth;
● Sustainability;
● Earth as a System;
● Hazardous Earth Processes;
● Scientific Knowledge and Values.
In particular, environmental geologists are concerned with the interaction between human populations and:
● Natural hazards – floods, storms, volcanic action
● Natural resources – soil, energy, water
● Climate and climate history – from a geological perspective
● Environmental and pollution policies
● Land use – from a geological perspective.
These professionals are trained to analyse pollution and its sources, how
pollutants move through the environment, how the Earth’s systems interact
with pollution and contaminant flows and about contaminant hydrogeology
[6, p. 27].
On a more specific level, they are involved in understanding, tracking and
monitoring:
● how population growth impacts local and global geological environ-
ments.
● how humans and their past / present / future activities impact climate from
a geological aspect.
● how human activities (building, mining, etc.) impact local geologic envi-
ronments.
MODULE 2. Geology as a Science
38
● how the quality of geologic water resources impact human health.
● how the application of environmental, pollution and other similar policies
affect the geological environment and ecosystems.
● environmental hazards to help produce environmental hazard maps
Environmental geologists can be found managing hydrogeological and geo-
logical resources including:
● surface and ground water resources;
● minerals;
● fossil fuels;
● land use.
Environmental geologists use geomorphological and edaphological tools
to study the earth’s lithosphere and determine best use practices around soil and
land use. They are also trained to identify and reduce our exposure to natural
hazards (floods, earthquakes, volcanic activity, etc.), to manage waste disposal
from domestic and industrial processes, and reduce or minimise the effects
of pollution.
Additionally, they may get involved in other activities associated with their
field of expertise, including litigation.
Environmental geologists are also involved in identifying natural hazards like
flood plains and fault lines and using this information to compile hazard maps.
These maps allow authorities and individuals to make better-informed decisions
around where to build and are a useful tool for improving awareness about building and living in certain types of geological environments.
Pollution and contaminated land management is yet another area where
environmental geologists are becoming increasingly involved. Indeed, the
investigation, assessment, and remediation of contaminated land typically
now lands in the lap of the environmental geologist. These professionals are
trained to analyse pollution and its sources, how pollutants move through the
environment, how the earth’s systems interact with pollution and contami-
nant flows, and about contaminant hydrogeology. They are involved in planning and executing remediation projects (including mine site rehabilitation),
licensing and permitting, waste management, site investigations (drilling,
sampling, testing contaminated sites) as well as population health and safety
[6, p. 28].
1. READING SECTION
39
Career paths for environmental geologists
Many environmental geologists do specialise in certain areas and are employed by engineering consultancies where they may act as Environmental Consultants, Environmental Geochemists, Contaminated Land Specialists, Environment Risk Management Specialists, Hydrogeology Specialists, etc.
What needs to be an environmental geologist?
A good understanding of historic and current geologic events is a necessary
part of being an environmental geologist. Knowing the types of events the earth
has produced in the past, the frequency with which they’ve happened, and the
damage they’ve caused, helps shape our understanding of potential current and
future occurrences. This in turn helps us make better plans for the future in terms
of population growth and its associated support systems.
For example – an environmental geologist would have been able to advise authorities that building a city just 8 kilometres from a volcano was not in fact a good
idea! It’s advice like this that helps avert the type of disaster that eventually befell
said city when the volcano erupted in 79AD, burying it and its citizens beneath
metres of volcanic rubble.
Likewise, an environmental geologist will suggest that town planning authorities not issue permits to build on flood plains (for obvious reasons) without taking steps to remove the risk of future flooding. However, they may also advise
that removing that risk could have adverse effects on the ecosystems within the
existing flood plain. Or that diverting flood waters elsewhere without taking into
account the underlying geologic structures could create a whole new set of problems.
They would then be able to work with planning authorities, civil engineers and
engineering geologists to come up with solutions based on sound geologic
knowledge and experience. Should a flood happen, environmental geologists can
assist with the remediation of an affected area and help restore it back to its preflood condition.
In short, the basic principle underlying environmental geology, as is the case
with all the environmental sciences, is that human progress and development
should not come at the expense of the natural environment. Rather, it must work
harmoniously with the environment and it must be sustainably managed to ensure it remains like that with minimal adverse impact upon natural systems [6, p. 29].
40
2. VOCABULA RY SECTION
Ex. 1. Complete the table. Form nouns and adjectives from the words
in the table. Use a dictionary if necessary.
NOUN (SCIENCE)
ADJECTIVE
NOUN (JOB)
1)
scientific
2) geology
3)
stratigraphic
4)
biologic
5) volcanologist
6) physics
7)
meteorologic
8) economics
9) mineralogist
10)
philosophic(al)
Ex. 2. Look through the text again. Match adjectives with the nouns
adjective
noun
1
A PLANET
2 HOLISTIC
B
3
C UNDERSTANDING
4
D ACTIVITY
5 SINGLE-CELLED
E
6 CONVERGENT
F
7
G PROPERTIES
8 ADDITIONAL
H
9 DIVERGENT
I
10
G PLATES
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