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lexical, semantic and grammatical aspects of words as terms, V.P.Danilenko notes that the
elements of a word are also inherent in terms, including their capacity for variation.
T.L.Kandelaki and V.l.Siforov also argue for the existence of terminological variation
(1983:2). The Kazakh terminologists U.Aitbaev and Sh.Kurmanbaiuly take the view that
terms are not isolated units, independent of general-purpose language systems. They
argue that fundamentally, the words used within general-purpose language constitute
the basis of terminological systems; and that as a result, the field of terminology
functions according to the normal rules of any widely spoken language. With work
based on an analysis of a particular corpus of linguistic material, V.M.Leichik was the
first to propose a classification of terminological variation (1982:21). Using this system of
classification, Russian and Kazakh epizoological terms can be divided into variants
based on their material differences:
1. Doublets. For example: epizoology/epidemiology. Сапролегниоз -дерматомикоз
(saprolegniosis /dermatomycosis) - a disease found in fish characterised by lesions to
the fins or gills. Пневмония - вирусный аборт кобыл (Pneumonia/equine miscarriage
virus) - a disease found in mares, characterised by fever leading to unexpected
miscarriages. Колибактериоз - эпирихиоз (colibacillosis) - a disease characterised
by serious poisoning and dehydration. Стрептокоз - диплоккоз
(streptocosis/diplocosis) - a disease found in young animals characterised by
septicaemia and inflammation of the joints. Орнитоз - пситтакоз
(ornithosis/psittacosis) - respiratory disease characterised by lesions to the mucous
membranes of the respiratory passages.
2. Conceptual synonyms within a single terminological system. Eg:
финноз/цистициркоз/ценуроз (measles/cysticercosis/coenurosis).
3. Collocations and complex words. Within Russian and Kazakh zoonotic
synonymy, the incidence of eponyms (designation based on the surname of a
doctor or academic) is particularly widespread. For example: Whitmore's disease
(named after the English doctor who discovered this rare disease); fibromatosis
in rabbits Shope's fibroma (American academic, 1932); leptospirosis - Weil-Vasilev's
disease (German and Russian academics, 1888 and 1886); African swine fever -
Montgomery's disease (1991); pseudorabies - Aujeszky's disease (Hungarian
academic 1902). And in Kazakh: Whitmore's disease - Whitmore aurury; Shope's
fibroma -Shope fibromasy; Weil-Vasilev's disease - Weil-Vasilev aurury:
Montgomery's disease: Montgomery aurury; Aujeszky's disease -Aujeszky aurury.
4. Double collocation. This group is made up of eponymous synonyms, based on
the geographical location where the disease was identified. For
example: rickettsial fever - Marseille fever (Marseille, France); Rocky mountain
spotted fever (America), Japanese river fever. In Kazakh: Marsel bezgegi, Zhapon ozen
bezgegi. Also: viral plasmacytosis - Aleutian mink disease. In Kazakh: Norka Aluet
aurury: viral hepatitis - Rift Valley fever (Rift Valley, Kenya); paramyxovirus -
Newcastle disease (Newcastle, UK); tularaemia - O'Hara's disease.
5. Interstructural. These occur in various combinations of full and shortened
terminological variance, including combinations of collocation and abbreviation.
In Russian and Kazakh, complex, multi-element collocations are examples of
phraseological terms (A.V.Superanski). They consist of material from the
indigenous language combined with borrowings. The existence of phraseological
terms suggests a desire for accuracy. Phraseological terms enable specific
characteristics to be attributed to diseases, such as its degree of severity and
other particularities. As Russian and Kazakh use composite analytical
designations, a greater level of descriptive detail is possible. In turn, this allows a
more explicit description of elements observed more widely in the natural world.
Abbreviations are used to enable these detailed designations to be used
operationally. The most common types are letter-based abbreviations.
Letter-based initialisms (abbreviations proper) are particularly widespread in
zoonotic terminologies: PVL (Povalnoe Vospalenie Legkikh) - general inflammation
of the lungs; ZKT (Zlokachestvennaia Kataralnaia Goriachka) - malignant catarrhal
fever; AChS (Afrikanskaia Chuma Svienei) - African swine fever; VGES (Virusniy
Gastroenterit Svinei) - Viral Gastroenteritis in pigs; KPP (Kontagioznaia
plevropnevmonia) - contagious pleuropneumonia.
6. Stylistic. These occur as stylistic synonymy. One of each pair of synonyms
belongs to a separate terminological system. Eg: Epilepsy -petit mal.
Within linguistics, opinions on the issue of variation in specialised units of language
have undergone a paradigm shift. The change from structural to structural-functional
research methods have allowed terms to be open to a larger number of new ideas and
key concepts. As a result, formal and semantic variation has now become one of the
fundamental characteristics of terms themselves. Through having undergone the
intellectual processes involved in research and analysis by academics, terms become a
universal linguistic concept, the essence of which is their general characteristic as a
linguistic sign. It Is sometimes argued that linguistic research into variation leads
logically to a related set of issues focused on the various aspects of terms and their
semantic variation.
2.5. Terminological dichotomies
The way in which the dictionary publishing industry is structured brings together
the theory and practice of lexicography. This includes specialised disciplines within
lexicography such as general lexicography, the history of lexicography and research into
subjects such as the status of the dictionary and dictionary usage. From the point of view
of linguistic theory, lexicographical publications are an essential research tool, which
trace out individual linguistic sub-systems. These include: phonological, lexical,
grammatical and syntactic systems, as well as those that tackle phraseology and word
formation. The analysis and level of abstraction present in lexicographical material
allows for a systematic account of the internal system of a language from socio-cultural,
semasiological and onomasiological viewpoints. It is argued that this can demonstrate
how language functions within society, shedding light on intercultural communication
across the ethno-cultural borders of the linguistic map of the world. This can allow a
comparison of the typical characteristics of different languages, their processes and
historical development.
Within current Kazakh and international linguistics research, lexicography offers an
approach to almost any issue. The most accurate way to describe the state of
lexicography at the beginning of the 21st century would probably be as an abundance of
various specialised dictionaries, which reflect almost all aspects of the development of
language and how it operates.
In the typology of dictionaries proposed by L.V.Scherba, terminological dictionaries
are not included. As an academic discipline, with its own theoretical propositions,
principles and methods, terminography started to develop in the 1970s and 80s, when
generalised theories began to emerge in the works of Rondeau, Berkov, Marchuk,
Grinev and others. It must be noted that future challenges for Kazakh lexicography
include the publication of fundamental research on the theoretical issues associated with
bilingual lexicography and terminography (including the Russian/Kazakh language
pair). Sh.Sh.Saribaeva believes that: 'statistics show that only around ten of the 500
doctoral theses presented over the last fifty years have focused on the theory of
lexicography. This bears witness to how much theory is lagging behind practice at
present.' (Saribaev, 2001:11). V.M.Leichik notes that the gap between theory and practice
has led to a situation where most terminological dictionaries have been written on
intuition. Zh.N.Zhunusovaia's monograph notes: 'Kazakh lexicographers have a huge
task ahead of them, including a bilingual dictionary of equivalences, a dictionary of
syntactic constructions, an ideographic dictionary and a bilingual phraseological
dictionary. There are still no published phraseological thesauruses, biographical
dictionaries of Kazakh writers or dictionaries of spoken language. The time has also
come for glossaries which chronicle individual authors' use of language, dictionaries of
set phrases in Kazakh,
bilingual terminological dictionaries and much besides. The need for translators to work
on full-scale bilingual dictionaries of various kinds has now become pressing
(Zhunusova, 2001:56).
Looking at material from the world of epizoological terminology, there are a
number of lexicographical dichotomies, which have a direct bearing on the research and
publication of bilingual terminological dictionaries. The normative/descriptive
dichotomy plays an important role in how the compilation of Russian-Kazakh
dictionaries of epizoological terms could be approached. The author's position is that a
Russian-Kazakh dictionary of epizoological terms should allow for the inclusion of
aspects of both ends of the dichotomy, and that this approach does not contradict the
principles of terminological dictionary compilation. Specialists have noted that, within
the Kazakh system of epizoological terminology, there has long been a lack of Kazakh
equivalent epizoological terms, which could express relevant scientific concepts.
(Kazakh equivalents of those terms are either rarely used or have been forgotten
altogether).
The World Health Organisation adopted Latin as the base language of epizoological
terminology. As a result, Latin-based words predominate. And although a large number
of doublet terms do exist, Kazakh-rooted terms tend to have been displaced by those of
Latin and Russian origin. Dictionaries of epizoological terminology have tended to take
a prescriptive and normative approach. Within the world of veterinary medicine, it is
therefore possible that Turkic words, taken from Kazakh lexical and semantic linguistic
systems, will start to be used in parallel with terminological sets that are already in use.
Notes on usage could provide recommendations on the appropriateness or otherwise of
using one epizoological term over another in veterinary medical practice. The definition
of each term could include remarks describing the norms associated with it. The
arguments laid out here should indicate that prescriptive and normative approaches
play a defining role in the establishment, normalisation and standardisation of an
epizoological terminology, as well as its adoption by specialists, practitioners in the field
and ordinary citizens. It could lead to richer variation in the theory and practice of
medical and veterinary medicine. It might also lead to an improvement in accessibility
for ordinary people in terms of public health warnings, recommendations and
advertising. However, it must be noted that the renewal of this area of language is
particularly challenging, due to the conservative nature of its vocabulary. This remains a
barrier to its comprehensibility.
The dichotomy of detail versus brevity is one of the more difficult phenomena to
address in compiling a dictionary. Three types of dictionaries are relevant to the
detail/brevity discussion: the complete, or unabridged dictionary, which presents the
historical development of a language; the mid-scale dictionary, which aims to present
the diachronic variety of a language
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in its contemporary form; and the abridged, or popular dictionary, which includes
descriptions of normative aspects of contemporary written discourse. Unabridged
dictionaries are designed for specialists, although those outside linguistics do also use
them. The mid-scale dictionary has the same purpose as its full-scale counterpart.
Abridged dictionaries will not provide specialists with the full range of material they
need, but can be used by non-specialists. L.V.Scherba described all three types of
dictionary as: 'a unified (and genuine) linguistic record of a particular section of
humanity at a particular moment in time.' (1974:74, 140).
Turning back to epizoological terminology and veterinary medicine, the author
believes that the compilation of a specialised dictionary could overcome the challenges
of the detail/brevity dichotomy by purely technical means: these could include changes
in the font and typeface size, introductory remarks at the beginning of articles on
individual terms and cross-referencing to other articles. The type and nature of the
sources likely to be quoted suggests this would be best presented in an unabridged
dictionary. The maximum number of epizoological terms would need to be included, as
the aim would be to introduce the new terminological group into practical usage.
The dichotomy between definition and ideography is no less important in the
compilation of a dictionary of epizoological terms. This dichotomy is concerned with
satisfying the needs of the end user. Users of such a dictionary could include
epizoological researchers, practising veterinary surgeons, or ordinary members of the
public, who may have come up against a veterinary problem in their own life. Focussing
on the end user could be an opportunity to move away from a single principle in
presenting the definitions of words, and to attempt to structure the work as a
multi-purpose dictionary, including two types of definition: one based on words and the
other on graphics, in the style of an encyclopaedia.
Encyclopaedia-style dictionaries are an effective means of improving the
professional skills and competences of specialists in any discipline. The educational
opportunities presented by these types of dictionary have resulted in a continuing rise in
the number of subject-specific encyclopaedia-style dictionaries being published. In
effect, they are semantic dictionaries of specialised terminologies, which are widely used
in search engine technology and in the development of electronic dictionaries and online
training programmes. The compilation of a subject-specific terminological dictionary
could therefore be a way of resolving the dichotomy between definition and ideography
as part of the process of producing a subject-specific terminological dictionary.
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2.6. The question of integrating individual subject-specific
terminological systems
Interaction between individual subject-specific terminological systems has recently
been the focus of a great deal of debate, including in relation to issues of the
development and operation of integrated terminological systems.
The terminological sets found within integrated terminological systems can be
identified by the following specific characteristics:
1) a significant and specific weight is given to lexis within the word set that makes
up the terminological system;
2) the terms come from a variety of sources;
3) large parts of one terminological system is included in another;
4) terminological units from other terminological systems are present, as well as
related concepts relevant to the research disciplines that cross over within the
integrated set.
In the field of animal anatomy, an integrated terminological system could be
exemplified through defining the anatomical structure of the pelvis. Traditionally, three
disciplines have had a professional interest in this part of the anatomy: anatomists,
emergency specialists and birth and delivery specialists. Each uses a different set of
principles as the basis for their classification of the structure of the pelvis. For animal
anatomists, a logical basis for classification could be that of bilateral symmetry, in which
the body of an animal is divided into two halves (right and left). In veterinary
emergency medicine, an equally logical basis for classification might, in addition to an
anatomical approach, be with reference to the parameters of clinical veterinary
medicine, and focussed on the fact that the pelvis is jractured. This highlights the parts of
the pelvis that have been damaged - its edge. Birth and delivery specialists, however,
would be likely to approach the issue of naming different parts of the pelvis on the basis
of how far the size of the pelvis minor, which is involved in the process of giving birth,
is within or outside the normal size range. Using the example of these three disciplines
and their approach to the classification of a single anatomical element, a five-fold model
may be posited in the designation of a single object (two within anatomy, two in
emergency medicine, and one in birth and delivery). The general approach uses a logical
method of dividing up the anatomical object in question, and is based on the principle of
listing the constituent parts of a given element. Analysis reveals that each of the three
areas displays its own specificities. Taken together, they allow us to identify the
following peculiarities in each of the terminologies under consideration. The
terminology used by the anatomists stresses the normal structure of the skeleton
and can generally be characterised within the categories object; space; process. These
categories are to be found in the approach used by emergency medicine specialists,
although the category of object includes the characteristic part of a whole, which tends to
indicate an aspect of trauma. Birth and delivery specialists appear to be the most
detailed of the three disciplines. They use the categories disease; gender; time. Perhaps the
most interesting aspect of this conceptual cluster is the process category. This detailed
analysis of the terminological set used to classify anatomical elements found in the three
disciplines of anatomy, emergency medicine and birth and delivery reveals that the
anatomical list derived here accords with the International Anatomical Terminology and
provides example of Latin-based terms, together with their Russian and Kazakh
equivalents. These are present in between two and three terminological sets, which
characterise the structure of the pelvis (eg: acetabular fossa; acetabular floor; iliac tuberosity),
including all its sub-structures, size ranges and conceptual characteristics.
The terms contained in the Anatomical Atlas tend to follow closely the contours of
the terms and their synonyms found in the International Anatomical Terminology: pelvic
bones/pelvic ring; bone joint; sacrococcygeal articulation. The generalised interdisciplinary
terminology within veterinary medicine discussed here encompasses a number of
sub-disciplines (anatomy, emergency medicine and birth and delivery). The approach of
each takes account of a variety of theoretical and pragmatic objectives within each of the
professional sub-groups. This demonstrates how much the same physical object can
appear differently in the minds of different specialists, evidenced by the different terms
each group has derived and uses. This provides a basis for the compilation of a series of
terms united by the fact that they are derived from a single parent-term, pelvis.
Terminology used by veterinary birth and delivery specialists is also highly
practical in character. Anatomists tend to designate the anatomical element we know as
the pelvis with one term (pelvis). Birth specialists break the pelvis down at a more
detailed level. Diagnoses made by these specialists, which mention the pelvis use both
terms and specialised professional language. These break down into categories such as
form, size and the pathology of any abnormalities in the area (eg: small; narrow, uniformly
tapered, clinically narrow pelvis). Size is relevant as a characteristic of the pelvis, given its
bearing on the ability of female animals to give birth.
In addition to the veterinary medical terms anatomically narrow pelvis and clinically
narrow pelvis, the phrase functionally narrow pelvis is also used in professional jargon: this
has a generalising effect that covers the meanings of both previous terms. Occasionally,
diagnoses include the generalised, profession-specific term dimensions of the pelvis, which
gives rise to a number of definitions of a particular form of pelvic narrowing (eg:
generalised, uniform narrowing; flattened narrowing, transverse narrowing etc). In addition to
these
generalised groupings, a further group of terms exists to allow the concept of narrowing
to be specified in more detail with reference to the reason for the narrowing (eg:
narrowed pelvis due to exotosis).
Birth and delivery terminology tends to focus on deviations from the norm in terms
of the dimensions of the pelvis (eg: obliquely dislocated pelvis; flattened, rachitic pelvis,
scoliotic pelvis). These terms all express, in various ways, the opposite to the concept of a
'normal situation'. Even though the concept of normality is not explicitly defined, the
words normal pelvis can be observed in discourse between birth and delivery specialists
as a unit of professional jargon.
Certain items of vocabulary within professional veterinary medicine are not terms.
For example: section of the edge of the pelvic bone; trochanter recess wall, section of the pelvic
bone, egress from the small pelvis etc). These could be considered as 'pre-terms' which may,
in time, take on the full status of a term.
The number of terms which designate the same object has, in this case, increased by
about one and a half times. Of those terminologies that have been analysed semantically,
the most commonly occurring phenomenon is synonymy (34% of the overall number of
terms) and figurative usage (44%). Terminology within veterinary anatomy is calibrated,
precise and in line with international norms. As a result, it displays lower levels of
synonymy. Synonymy is present to a greater degree within birth and delivery
disciplines (eg: obliquely dislocated pelvis; scoliotic pelvis; asymmetrically narrowed pelvis).
The introduction of veterinary anatomical terminology into veterinary emergency
medicine has also given rise to synonymy: lobkovaia kost/lonnaia kost [pubis];
kresttsovo-kopchikoviy sustav/kresttsovo-kopchikoviy soedinenie [sacrococcygeal joint].
These examples show that the use of terminology from animal anatomy to describe
an item of anatomy does not always allow the correct degree of precision needed for
professionals to communicate between themselves. Supplementary information is
sometimes required to define exactly what is meant in professional discourse among
specialists and teachers in the clinical disciplines of veterinary medicine. The integration
of knowledge from two or more disciplines into one area of contemporary research,
business or social endeavour can lead to the formation of integrated sets of terminology.
In this case, the terms in the new subject area will be binominal, and will naturally
combine terms from one subject area with those of another. This is the case in land
economy, which combines terms from economics and veterinary medicine (eg:
business-related activities within a system of fee-paying veterinary services). Such terms
can be borrowed from a mixture of different knowledge areas. They operate on two
different bases: they can either be used as part of the original terminological system from
which they were borrowed, or as an integral part of the new terminological system into
which they were transferred.
Terminology actively uses methods found in semiology. This is because terms can
be considered as conceptual signs, and terminological systems are
Q1
therefore systems composed of signs. Terms are to be found in situations where semiotic
research can be applied, including syntax, semantics and pragmatics (P.G.Piotrovskii;
S.V.Grinev). The theory of terminology also has strong links with some mathematical
disciplines, such as mathematical linguistic methodology and set theory. Both are used
to study terminological systems, individual terms and the processes by which these
systems operate.
Veterinary medical terminology and its terminological subsets have been used for
cluster analysis in various research projects including terminological research into
fixation. They have appeared in documentation such as dictionaries, documents of the
World Health Organisation and collections of recommended standard terminology from
the World Organisation for Animal Health. A number of theoretical and applied
terminology research products have resulted from cluster analysis, such as descriptions
of various fields of knowledge and base material for the compilation of terminological
dictionaries.
The range of interdisciplinary research areas, methods and terminologies is
extensive. It includes all disciplines, which work with Russian- and Kazakh-language
information systems, including areas such as methodological and terminological work
into engineering psychology. The naming of new objects identified during research is
done by researchers themselves on the basis of either an intuitive grasp or conscious
knowledge of the principles of terminological designation. It is partly dependent on the
heuristic and linguistic capabilities of the individual researcher, and can also touch on
the individual's creative talents (eg: fibrous muscular bundle; Eustachian tube; genetic
memory).
Terminological standardisation uses the generalised principles of the theory of
standardisation (unification). It focuses on the standardisation of terms within particular
subject areas. The result of interdisciplinary work has been to establish terminological
standards at international, national and subject-specific levels. These standards are
successfully used in research-based and technological areas of work in a variety of fields
of knowledge.
3. The functional and motivational
nature of specialised terminology
1. The nominative, definitive, communicative and heuristic
fUnctions of Russian and Kazakh terms
When we talk about the function of a group of terms, we are referring to the role of
terms as a means of signifying a specialised concept common to a number of fields: the
lexico-semantic system of 'natural language' as a linguistic substratum; the terminology
of a specialised field of knowledge; the theory behind that specialised field. Terms are
multifunctional and their functions are interconnected. Given that terms are based on
lexical items, the functions of terms (nominative, significative, communicative, pragmatic,
etc.) are based on the functions of words. Across the various fields, the functions of
terms are diverse and interconnected. Terms are multifunctional, and all of their
functions must be studied in relation to one another.
The nominative function denotes the representational aspect of a term. Like all lexical
items, terms have a nominative function. According to the theory of nomination, in the
process of reality perception and collaboration between people certain objects must be
named, along with their attributes and functions. The functional value displays certain
similarities with the identifying value. Like identifying nominations, terms are also
characterised by high levels of taxonomy, continuous borders of reference, conditioned
by the realia of the external world. Only the functional type of a term with a nominative
value can be defined in terms of the dual values of identification + the idea of the entire prior
signification of the named object. The nomination of a term with its own functional value
objectifies distinct concepts, formed on the basis of sensory perception. It is active
contemplation of the object that forms an imprint on the characteristics of the linguistic
stylisation of the object. Provided the object is perceived as monofunctional, one may
assume that the nominative unit (the term) that objectifies that object will belong to the
category monosemantic. The main focus here will be the diverse terminological systems
whose constituent lexical items act as synonyms in comparable languages, not only at
the denotative but also at the significative level.
Stemming directly from the practical life of a society, the nomination of terms with
their own functional value can show us the ethnographic and culturological
characteristics of linguistic communities. Any discrepancies in this area will tend to be
found in the semantic category of nonequivalent vocabulary. Ethnographic terms occupy
a prominent position in this category. What is unique to terms as units of nomination is
that they enable the naming of
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