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orancnes of academia and the emergence of new branches of research have increased the
need to find new terminology. Factors such as those have lead to the invention of new
terms, the foundation of whole new terminological systems and the modification of
existing systems. The reasons behind such an increase in the volume of specialised
terminology can be explained by analysing the theory behind the emergence of
specialised vocabulary. The roots of this theory are to be found in a concept developed
by the Prague Linguistic Circle known as functionalism or Prague functionalism. The
concept considered specialized vocabularies as an extension and sub-system of any
language with a developed, contemporary variant, used by a linguistic community
today. Modern society encompasses a wide range of professional and academic interests
(including natural sciences, economics, politics, management, infrastructure, culture,
sport, defence, healthcare, veterinary science, media and communication). Each of these
areas has its own specialised terminology, without which professionals would be unable
to communicate with each other. Specialised terminologies can, in this case, be described
as a mean of communication for individuals working in the same profession.
Issues around the emergence and development of professional terminologies have
always formed a special part of the discipline of lexicology. In the 1930s, terminology -
an applied academic discipline that studied terms and systems of terms - branched off
from mainstream linguistics. The resulting new discipline benefited from significant
contributions from academics such as Baitursynov, Zhubanov, Kenesbaev, Aitbaev,
Vinogradov, Lotte, Vinokur, Reformatsky, Budagov and Ahmanova. Terminology
tended to be divided into three sub-disciplines: Nominative, Normative and Functional.
Since then, the discipline of terminology has changed significantly. There are
numerous theoretical works available (including by Aitbaev, Kaliev, Kurmanbaituly,
Grinev, Melnikov, Superanskaya, Leichik) as well as journals on theoretical terminology
(eg: The Terminology Bulletin [Terminologicheskii Vestnik] and Terminologiyalik Khabarshi).
It has been posited that terminology as a discipline is currently in the process of
devising a general theory of terminology - one of the most important parts of general
linguistics. Focus has intensified on specialised vocabulary and specialised terms
because of technological progress as well as developments in natural sciences, sociology,
physiology, philosophy, linguistics, arts and culture. The result of this progress has been
an increased need for special words to refer to new topics of study. Such progress has
and does take place at different times and in different parts of the world: but the scale of
recent progress as a phenomenon in itself is unique. It is often argued that, at the turn of
the 20th and 21st centuries, specialised Terminologies for virtually every major branch of
science and technology have been developed in Russian and Kazakh. This is evidenced
by the availability of a range of Russian-Kazakh / Kazakh-Russian
specialised terminological dictionaries, directories and academic publications.
Terminology only emerged as a separate branch of academic research after the First
World War. But even before that, its development was boosted by a standardisation
process led by famous Western terminologists such as Wuster who was a long-standing
director of the International Information Centre for Terminology (Infoterm).
According to Tatarinov, terminological research was historically recognised as an
academic discipline in 1972. The first work on the systemisation of terminological
research was Tatarinov's own dissertation (1987:234). The theory of terminology
generalises experimental terminological research. It facilitates the creation and
refinement of sub-areas of terminology by defining features that are specific to terms,
and distinguishing them from non-terms. There are significant differences in the detailed
aspects of certain areas of research and technology. However, the specialised
terminological systems associated with each area have much in common, because they
originate from the same general-purpose language used by the linguistic communities
that developed each specialised system.
Features that are specific to specialised terminologies of different branches of
academic research (eg: veterinary medicine), deserve separate study, due to the number
of questions arising from the detailed linguistic study of the structures of most
specialised terminological systems. The terminological system of any academic
discipline, including the theory and practice of veterinary medicine, not only reflects the
present status of that discipline, but also acts as a tool for its future development.
Modern studies of problematic terminological questions have suggested that
terminology has developed as an academic discipline somewhere between linguistics,
logic, ontology, IT and natural sciences. Contemporary processes of creating terms target
the problem of the harmonisation and standardisation of specialised terms at all the
stages of their development and practical application. The main routes for solving such
problems include creating new terms, translating foreign terms, identifying synonyms,
reconsidering the choice of base-terms and the revival of terms from languages which, in
the case of the CIS, started developing in new directions in those countries which
became independent after the break-up of the Soviet Union. Despite the dominance of
Russian during the Soviet period, other languages of the former soviet republics have
made significant progress. Kazakh academics have posited solutions for terminological
challenges, such as subject-to-term correlation and harmonisation of applied
terminology. Many studies and articles on the linguistic and socio-linguistic aspects of
terminology and terminography have been published, along with articles about current
issues and possible future directions in the development of terminology in Kazakhstan
(see, among others Aitbaev, Kaidarov, Sarybaev, Syzdykova, Kaliev,
Kurmanbayuly, Buharbayeva,
Zhumabekova, Yevteyeva, Bizhkenova, Abdrasilov, Azamatova).
A body of work has been developed which is of significant academic interest
through theorising experimental research carried out by individual researchers and
research groups. It has posed questions of wide academic interest and proposed
generalised approaches to answering those questions. It is a body of work which
represents much of the entire complex of theoretical issues within terminology. And it
includes research into the capacity of languages to build terminological systems drawing
links across national and international aspects of specialised terminologies, (such as
veterinary medicine) and making predictions on the likely level of their adoption at a
national and/or international level.
As an academic discipline typological terminology is discussed by Kazarina
(1998:272). She attempts to describe the system of processes in linguistics that involve
the discipline of terminology and typological terminology. Her comparative study of
terms is an opportunity to uncover their typological features and to trace how academic
views have evolved to allow the results of various research projects to be applied to
terminological designation activities. However the question still remains open of
whether the starting point for the designation of specialised terms should be the detailed
study of the terminology of a particular academic discipline or whether some sort of
network of characteristics should be drawn up which can be used as a matrix on which
to base a wider system of specialised terminology. Mainstream approaches to
terminology have shifted within various industrial and business sectors. The specialised
vocabularies of individual professions were seen as subordinated to the general
structure of a given language as a whole. But they have also started to be seen as a
fundamental component of a given profession's own way of communicating. In Russian
linguistics, Ivina approached the study of specialised professional vocabularies using
financial terminology as a case study, using the linguistic-cognitive method as a
theoretical framework. Rudinskaya reviewed contemporary trends in the development
of hematolytic terminology. Specialised vocabularies from the financial world have also
been reviewed from different academic perspectives by Kitaygorodskaya, Konovalova,
and Karpukhina. Tokebaeva-Bulanbaeva has researched IT terminologies. And the
semantics of agricultural terminology was the subject of a number of Nurkasymova's
studies.
Broadcast and print media tend to translate the same term in various different ways.
This generally makes it more difficult to create consistent, harmonised terminological
systems within various professions as well as making the translator's task more
problematic. Tatarinov has discussed the ambiguity of various terms in his dissertation,
developing his concept of asymmetrical and multi-purpose terms in later studies
(1996:311). Hizhnyak has studied the inherent qualities of legal terms (1998:39).
Zharkynbekova has
analysed the cognitive categorization of words denoting colour in Russian and Kazakh
(2007:56) and Golovanova has worked on the designation of job titles by confirming
their status as separate linguistic units and applying this theory to practical case studies
(2004:330). The ontological status of specialised terms in modern Russian has been
analysed through the prism of general linguistic theory by Sultanov (1996:91) and
Averbukh (2004:239). Syzdykov raised the subject of the normative capabilities of
specialised Terminologies (2003:86-92) and Eskaev (2003:60-67). Isakova has dealt with
foreign terms (2006:32-34). The phenomenon of how specialised terms are designated is
currently attracting academic interest on a number of fronts. Volodina takes a
multi-topic approached to the issue in the world of Russian terminology (1997:80) and
Kurmanbayuly has made similar contributions to Kazakh terminological research
(1997:55). These researchers have paid attention to the pre-positive and
socio-communicative nature of specialised terms. Their work highlights the linguistic,
psychological and pragmatic aspects of how specialised terms are designated, by
stressing the role of metaphor in the process of designating terms: 'There is no creativity
without a metaphor.' (Volodina, ibid). Volodina and others have also observed that if the
process of creating terms is modelled, then a special pool of terms tends to form, which
is used for the creation of sector-specific terminological sub-systems. The basis for the
classification of specialised terms is the linguistic origin of a term, which could include a
term taken from general-purpose language; a loan-word from Greek or Latin; or a
loan-word from a related terminological system. Philologists have traditionally drawn
from philological, functional and stylistic subject matter in carrying out their research.
Mukanova has studied the nature of terms, taking examples from Valikhanov's books
(2001:27) and Bizhkenova has dedicated her study to the problems of cognitive invention
of terms (2007:79).
The role of terminologies in Kazakh has been studied by Gontsova (1990:92).
Studies of industry-specific and inter-industry terminologies by Komarova
(1997:391-465) and Kulpina (2001:470) are also worthy of attention. The growing interest
in the study of terminology may be explained by the more important role that terms
play in modern life overall - a process which is itself driven by technological change. In
this context, term is defined as a phenomenon derived from the linguistic and
intellectual activities of humans.
Terminology enables the invention of large numbers of newly invented words,
which have never existed in any language. It is a discipline which also emphasises
logical solutions. This allows logical patterns of linguistic relationships to be analysed.
This process is outlined in standard terminology texts by Baytursynov, Reformatsky and
Melnikov. This is particularly interesting as a tool for analysing associative and
figurative thinking as part of the process of inventing new terms. For example, the
Kazakh word sheshek means flower in ancient Turkic. But in the 20th century it also came
to mean disease. Similarly, the
Russian word yashur means a lizard or salamander in a number of slavic languages.
Later on it came to mean disease.
One of the most important aspects of academic research is the way in which it
distinguishes between the subject and object of study; between research itself and the
separate research disciplines. 'Particularly in a methodological study, it is important to
bear in mind that the subject of study is not the same as its object. As the product of
human research activities, any human creation is subordinated to certain rules that
might be different from the rules of the subject itself.' (Shedrovitsky, 1964:14).
This section has outlined that the overall objectives of theoretical terminology are: to
study the formation and use of specialised words designed to express accumulated
knowledge; to identify common features among these specialised words; to look for
optimal ways to create individual new terms and systems of terms; to improve existing
terminological systems; to look for universal factors, common to terms within different
subject areas; to summarise studies by various individual academics and collective
research traditions.
1.3. Meta-linguistic foundations
How necessary it is to create categories of terms belonging to different subject areas
and so to determine the basic notions inherent in macro- and micro-terminological
systems is still open to debate. One possible approach towards practically solving these
terminological issues is first to analyse the terminological concepts at the root of each
term within a given academic discipline, and then to systemically describe the
meta-terminologies of that discipline. Recent focus on those two aspects have meant that
meta-terminology and subject-specific terms have become more commonplace. This
tendency has also intensified due to factors including: the volume of new terms
available; the creation of terms and their quality; terminological motivation and
non-motivation; the presence or absence of ambiguity in the definitions of terms; the
ability to distinguish a term's meaning from how it is expressed.
Interest in the meta-language of terminology goes back to antiquity. Today,
terminological studies can help our understanding of the way terms are created. More
practically, they can also help to understand the way terminological sets are
standardised and systemised, as well as to help the updating of existing dictionaries and
the compilation of new ones. Descriptive terminology has 3 major tasks:
(1) to give an objective and comprehensive evaluation of subject-specific terms and
how well they express a given concept;
(2) to define terms for inclusion in subject-specific glossaries;
(3) to describe terms and their systems as they form.
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As a separate area of academic research, professional jargon or slang has revealed a
number of new terms for the discipline of terminology itself including: terminological
motivation, system of terms, specialised glossary, range of terms and cognitive
terminology. The applied linguistics theorist A Baranov notes: 'In linguistics, terms
belong to a special part of any language system and are studied within the discipline of
terminology.' (2000:90).
One principle within the early stages of classifying terms is that of ideography. The
basis for the ideographical description of epizootiological terms in our study is
presented as three broad areas. Based on existing works by linguists from Kazakhstan
and elsewhere, each could essentially be described as 'functional'. They are:
(1) Cognitive communication, both in its basic form and terms of
inter-personal communication;
(2) Writing texts in terms of syntax, semantics and pragmatics;
(3) Semantic terms and terminological groups.
Taking account of the topical aspect of this study, as well as the details of the
material studied, progress in the following activities are of particular importance:
comprehensively and logically analysing subject-specific terminologies; defining terms
ideographically according to subject area; compiling a glossary of terms for use in
veterinary medicine. To facilitate this, it is important to review the capability of existing
language to describe and create new terminology. Special attention should also be given
to the functional details of meta-language, as well as to the unification and
standardisation of subject-specific terminologies, and various aspects of their
development.
This study focuses particularly on the methodological recommendations of
terminologists such as U Aitbaev, V Leichik and Sh Kurmanbayula. They all use various
schemata to posit logical connections between terms and their meanings. The key issue
in works like these is that terminology is viewed as a discipline in itself, with many
interconnections. 'Term' is seen as having two sides. In turn, those two sides are posited
as a basis to argue that connections between terms are established through their
meanings. This study takes the initial position that connections between terms are based
on the detailed particularities. These have the potential to unite large groups of terms.
Each group will consist of several sub-groups.
The successful definition and appraisal of terms and terminological systems, tends
to be achieved using certain research methods. There are numerous terminological
theories (see, for example, Golovin, Gvishiani and Slyusaryova). This study focusses on
sets of subject-specific terminologies. In general, however, a terminologist's task could
be said to be to derive meta-taxonomies. This could include a comparative approach,
considering the meanings of various
terms used in different terminological theories.
There are two stages to defining a term: theoretical analysis, roiiowbd y deciding on
the most relevant theory for the terminological system in question. In reviewing the
existing rules of how new terms are formed, understanding the nature of the object that
needs to be named remains a central concern. The theoretical description is usually
something very general. As a result, we need to consider existing common and
specialised methods in addition to meta-theoretical descriptions.
Specialised methods that can be used are those that approach terms through their
precise definitions, or which identify a terminological system and the position of each
term in that system. Among others, these include ideography, structural and
typographic analysis. These often make use of systemic paradigms as well as
comparison.
How a term is identified plays an important role in determining the key terms in
any given field of knowledge. In our example of veterinary medicine, many terms
defined by practitioners fall short of the strictest rules of definition. The way in which a
term is defined is often described in logical terms, and as determined by both its content
and distinctive qualities. In certain texts, the key elements necessary to completely and
exactly define a term may be missing. If the semantics of a term are considered, they
should be compared with other specialised elements of language. In Russian and
Kazakh, the formal structure of terms consist of the usual phonetic and morphemic
structure of standard word formation. Similarly, syntactic analysis of multi-word terms
does not differ greatly from the analysis of any other nominal or verbal construction in
Russian and Kazakh. More recently, theoretical terminology has prioritised the
onomasiological over the semasiological approach, certainly where terminological
analysis is concerned (see, for example, Zhanalina, Volodina or Adilova).
In applying a systemic approach to terminological analysis, Russian- and
Kazakh-language systemic research trends should be taken into account. These include
identifying areas that are both common and particular to individual subjects, as well as
investigating common historical and social factors. Systemic factors that are common to
a number of terms suggest an element of completeness in a given system.
Subject-specific terminology can also be approached using a logical linguistic
paradigm. This approach considers a term in a terminological context and places it in a
terminological micro-system. In Russian and Kazakh subject-specific terminology, there
are six groups of terms: (1) key terms: the most important words in veterinary medicine
such as veterinary medicine, epizootiology, parasitology, panzootia. (2) derivative terms:
terms which are auxiliary to the main terms such as invasive zoonosis, area-specific invasive
zoonosis. (3) complex terms: these deal with complex subjects and consist of two or more
28
terms: colisepticaemia, edema of the umbilical vesicle. (4) basic terms: these art borrowed
from other areas of science, including anatomy, biology and physiology: monograph on
the anatomy of animal organs, bilirubin, de-sensitisation. (5) terms borrowed from other
scientific disciplines such as risk (as in zoonotic risk), culture (as in bio-culture). (6) Common
scientific terminology such as system, principle, phenomenon, (mathematical) set.
Subject-specific meta-language can also be studied using a encyclopaedic approach.
For our purposes, this approach of modelling information relevant to our analysis seems
the most appropriate. The study discusses potential solutions for the main issues of
contemporary term formation. The sharp rise in amounts of information available has
not been accompanied by changes in the culture of organizing, systemising and
exchanging information. Encyclopaedic modelling includes building linguistic models
that reflect the core connections between terms. It is based on the assumption that all
definitions used in a given branch of science replicate the structure of that science itself.
This means that the scientific discipline itself should be the starting point for creating a
meta-language to describe that discipline. The encyclopaedic approach is posited as a
universal model for any terminological system: as the aggregate of all terms and
definitions of a given topic, it could be said to describe the field of knowledge of an
entire subject area. However in a narrower sense: 'the encyclopaedic approach is the
multitude of linguistic expressions (words, collocations etc.) in a language, which
expresses a certain meaning.' (Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Foreign Words, 2004:143). The
encyclopaedic approach could therefore be said to be particularly useful for deriving
glossaries for a given branch of research.
1.4. Analysis of terms and terminology as the categories of
theoretical linguistics
As a branch of academic research itself, terminological studies have given rise to
their own jargon. Dictionaries and specialised literature define these terms in different
ways, reflecting linguists' different views of key issues, such as the definitions of term
and terminology. V.Gak posited three main objective factors, which unite different
theories to address the large number of concepts in use today: (1) non-discontinuity of
linguistic factors, (2) asymmetry between content and expression and (3) multiple
aspects of linguistic phenomenon.
D.Ushakov defines a term as follows: 'In formal logic [a term is] a meaning
expressed by a word; or a special word or expression used to describe something in a
specialist area or a subject-specific area." (1972:689). In these definitions, terms, items of
vocabulary and phraseological units are not distinguished. There is therefore no one
definition of the word term.
In the Dictionary of Logic, N.Kondakov defines a term as: 'a word or collocation that
expresses something in a specialist area or a profession.' The
word's meaning is defined as: 'the linguistic expression that describes objects or classes
of objects, their qualities and relationships, no matter whether the objects really exist or
only exist in human imagination.' (1975:271). The Philosophical Encyclopaedia provides a
number of definitions of the word term: 'From Latin, Termonus - a border, an edge. 1. A
word with a special (academic) meaning, existing in the context of a certain theory or a
branch of academic research. 2. Ancient philosophy - a word used to describe stable and
non-transforming aspects of reality, (also known as a law); opposed to ever-changing
perceptions of reality. 3. Traditional logic (including Aristotle's Syllogisms) - aspects of
judgment that create syllogisms, and their preconditions.' (Reformatsky, 1968:681).
Therefore even the term term itself has different meanings across different fields of
knowledge.
The terminologist T Kandelaki defines term as: 'A word or established collocation,
that has a certain position in a given system.' (Gainullina, 1989:30).
A Superanskaya has defined term as: 'A special word or collocation, that is part of
the vocabulary of a subject area and is used under particular conditions; the verbal
expression of an element which is part of a system used within a specific subject area;
the stable element of the vocabulary of a given subject area.' (1989). This shows how
many different ways term has been defined. In The term as an element of the lexical system,
Reformatsky argues: 'the sole purpose of terms is to name a concept or an object.'
(1968:115-116). A Superanskaya shares Reformatsky's view, highlighting a term's unique
meaning as one of its main qualities, positing that a term is a special word or collocation
that names a concept or object within academic research and that is part of a system of
definitions and objects that belongs to a particular branch of research (eg: veterinary).
She suggests that 'term' is therefore discipline-specific; to be used correctly, it should be
correctly defined within a each field of research (1989).
Similarly, Kazakh linguists have defined term in various ways. Gainullina provides
a wide-ranging definition: 'Terms are special words or established collocations that are
commonly found in various areas of science and technology and used for professional
cooperation; they are designed to express particular knowledge and constitute
specialised concepts that are used during the process of research.' (1989:36-7). She goes
on to connect term and meaning, by defining the latter as: 'an element of mental activity,
reflecting common qualities and relationships between particular objects under analysis.
This definition reflects the two main functions of a term: nominative (a term as a word or
collocation), and definitive (a term's ability to express certain meaning). (1989:ibid).
R.Musabaev has defined the main qualities of terms as: 1. Uniqueness; 2. Their
exclusive use in specialist, professional circles; 3. Their ability to express abstract
meaning. He argues: 'only words that fulfil these three criteria can be regarded as
academic or technical terms.' (1959:26).
K.Zhubanov notes: 'a term is a specific type of specialised vocabulary,
expressing certain scientific and technological achievements. A word's terminological
meaning and its common meaning may differ.' (1966:273).
S.Kenesbaev and T.Zhanuzakov conclude that a term is a word or collocation that
expresses established notions, used in different areas of science, technology, culture and
public life. (1966:12).
In summary, we propose the following definition of term: a semi-functional
specialised unit of language, used to define an aspect of academic or technological
research; part of a system of terms, generally used internationally. (The extent of
international connections in the fields of politics, science and technology underline the
importance of a common understanding between who people speak different languages
over what is meant by subject-specific terms).
For our purposes, the word terminology means both a set of terms (a terminological
set) and the academic discipline which studies how terms and terminological sets are
formed and how they function in a particular discipline or area of research (in this case,
veterinary medicine).
In its wider meaning, terminology can be placed in the same category as words such
as psychology, phonology and lexicology. Superanskaya writes: 'terminology is essentially
the organised studying of terms'. She includes the investigation of issues such as the choice
of language used to designate terms, the source of terms (which in the case of veterinary
medicine come from both classical and modern languages), how the choice of language
is made (eg: whether to take a term from Latin, Russian, Kazakh or borrow words
directly from other modern languages), and what particular forms should be used (eg:
whether to use the prefix somo- or somato-; stomo- or stomato- etc) (Superanskaya,
1989:34).
The research community's lack of agreement over the basic definitions within
terminology is reflected in the debate about the place of terminology in relation to other
branches of academic research. l.Volkova regards terminology as an independent branch
of linguistics (1984:25).
In a speech to the Soviet Union Congress on terminology development (Moscow,
1959), V Vinogradov, notes: 'specialised terminology occupies an important place in
modern vocabulary. Theoretical terminology is a part of general linguistic research.'
(1972:3).
A.Kaidarov, (famous for his work New Approaches to Kazakh terminology) argues
that modern Kazakh terminology should be seen as a theory within a system of theories
of general Kazakh linguistics. Kaidarov drew attention to the importance of terminology
today for a number of reasons: 1. science and technology is progressing rapidly in
Kazakhstan; 2. the development of academic research, including linguistic research can
contribute to a country's future development; 3. current processes of designating
specialised terminology are unstructured; but terminological designation is needed
more than ever, as rapid developments in areas such as economics, politics and
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