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7. Towards the development of a Russian-Kazakh
motivological dictionary
At the present time there are no dual language motivological dictionaries. The
general principles of composition for this type of dictionary would be no different to
those involved in any of the lexicographical genre: an alphabetised list of word-terms
with a description of their attributes, the motives which define the basis for the term's
name. The terms would be given a motivological definition, which necessarily helps to
uncover their full meaning, including historical and cultural information. The
motivological definition of a term will include its Latin denotation, which is
characteristic for veterinary medical terms. A Russian-Kazakh motivological dictionary
would be a totally new idea in motivological analysis, allowing scholars to look anew at
the similarities and differences in the ways that the genetically diverse peoples of the
world have constructed a scientific image of the world. The main instrument for
constructing the motivological dictionary would be the widely used motivological
method. Using this method, it is possible to judge and analyse the peculiar functional
characteristics of the linguistic consciousness of researchers and their means of forming
new word-terms. A dictionary like this could be consulted as a motivological profile of
the forms of consciousness emanating from particular academic disciplines, integrated
into the intellectual and sensory knowledge of these ethnic groups. The dictionary
would enable analytical research to delve into the conceptual worlds of language users
from both cultures, and bring out their similarities and differences. It would map out a
network of Russian and Kazakh motivemes:
Motive 1: Genus of bacterium
Пастереллез (Pasteurellosis), from the pathogen and genus of bacteria pasteurella
multocida, named after Louis Pasteur for his groundbreaking work in microbiology.
Лептоспироз (Leptospirosis), from the pathogen and genus of bacteria leptospira
(Greek leptos, 'fine, thin' and Latin spira, 'coil'). Leptospira has the appearance of fine
silver thread, with variable motility.
Бруцеллез (Brucellosis), from the pathogen and genus of bacteria Brucella,
non-motile, baci11iform, 'O'-shaped bacteria. Brucella was named after David Bruce,
who first isolated the pathogen.
Мелиоидоз (Meliodosis), from the pathogen and genus of bacteria Pseudomonas
pseudomallei, motile, bacilliform bacteria with rounded edges. The motive in the naming
of the bacteria is the diminutive Latin word for hammer 'malleolus', after the physical
appearance of the bacteria.
Сальмонеллез (Salmonellosis), from the pathogen and genus of bacteria
Salmonella. In 1885 Daniel Elmer Salmon empirically isoiatea the first major group of
salmonella. In 1934 it was decided by the international scientific community that the
bacteria should be named salmonella in his honour.
Стрептококков (Streptococcosis), from the pathogen and genus of bacteria
Streptococcus, from the family Streptococcaceae. These are spherical bacteria, arranged in
the form of a chain. The name is motivated by its round or 'grain-like' appearance and
chain-like arrangement (Greek streptos, from 'chain' and kokkos, 'grain').
Motive 2: Species of bacterium
Numerous zoonoses are named after species of bacteria. This sort of motivation is
not the most common in the field of veterinary medical terminology. Historically,
though, this was most likely how disease names were originally formed. Such names
normally have Greek and Latin roots.
Туберкулез (Tuberculosis). The pathogen is the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
The naming of the disease after the bacterium is associated with the duration of the
disease: the disease is characterised by the formation in various organs of tubercles, from
the Latin tuber, 'growth' or 'lump'. In Russian colloquial language we encounter a calque
of the name tuberculosis in the obsolete term 'бугорчатка', and in Kazakh көксау.
Некробактериоз (Necrobacillosis). The pathogen is the bacterium Fusobacterium
necrophorum. The transliterated Russian and Kazakh name is made up of the two
components некро (Greek necros, 'dead'), representing 'the onset of death in living organs
or tissue', and бактериоз (Greek bacteria, 'staff, cane'). The Latin name is derived from the
clinical characteristics of the disease: 'an infectious disease, characterised by necrotic
inflammation'.
Псевдотуберкулез (Pseudotuberculosis). This is a little known disease, presenting
symptoms superficially similar to those of tuberculosis. Accordingly, the pathogen is
called Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Those characteristics which are superficially similar to
those of tuberculosis are the basis for the name, which essentially means false
tuberculosis. This appears in calqued form in Kazakh in the term жалган туберкулез
(where жалган means 'false').
Колибактериоз (Colibacillosis). The name of the disease in Latin is associated with
the name of the the bacterium that causes it. The first part coli is from the Greek kolon
(colon), the second bacteria (cane) so that the literal meaning is something like 'colon
cane'. Accordingly, the calqued form in contemporary Russian is кишечная палочка. In
specialist veterinary medical literature, we find the following description of the disease:
'a highly infectious disease, manifesting in diarrhoea, symptoms of severe intoxication.'
In Russian the zoonosis колибактериоз has its own doublets, колиинфекция, and
эмпирихиоз. In historical records the first discovery of the pathogen is attributed to
Empiricus,
nence эмпирикиоз ('empiriciosis').
Пуллороз (Pullorosis). The disease mainiy occurs m oirus, anu tnererore tne bacteria
whicn generates the disease is named pullorum from the Latin pullus (chick).
Паралич (Paralysis). The pathogen of this disease is the virus parvovirus paralysis,
with the Greek root paralysis ('disabling of nerves'). Large animals infected with the
virus lose the ability to perform certain activities; they lose functional movement in
groups of muscles as the result of an impairment in the nervous system. The Russian
паралич derives from the PoUsh paraliz, in turn derived from the Latin paralysis. In
Kazakh the disease is metapnorically a 'black' disease form and takes the name сал ауру,
салдану.
Аскосфероз (Ascospherosis). The disease is a major cause of death in bee larvae,
leading to mummification. The mummified larvae are very hard, with an orr-wnite
colour, as if calcified. Hence the Russian name for the disease известковый расплод (lit.
'calcareous brood', as in the Englisn 'chalkbrood'). The Latin name comes from the bacteria
Ascosphaera apis, a fungal virus. The name is formed by the Greek ascos (a leathern bag),
signirying its propagation by fungus. There is no analogue in Kazah for the Russian
известковый расплод (chalkbrood), because the Kazakh people do not farm bees, creating
a gap on the Kazakh terminological map.
Ботулизм (Botulism). Historical records on zoonoses indicate that symptoms of the
disease were first identined in a person after they had eaten a sausage. The bacterial
pathogen was then named bacillus botulinus, after the Latin botulus (sausage).
Motive 3: Anatomical features
Инфекционный ринотрахет крупного рогатого скота (Infectious Bovine
Rhinotracheitis). This disease is characterised by inflammation of the upper respiratory
tract. The zoonosis Rhinotracheitis is an internationalism. The word is formed by the
Greek rhin ('nose'), and tracheia ('trachea'), thus indicating the part of the body the
disease affects.
The word infectious classifies the zoonoses as being infectious. The species of animal
is also indicated, as is always the case in veterinary medical terminology, because
different species display different symptoms. The Kazakh name for the disease is a
calque of the Latin name: сиырдың жуқпалы ринотрахеиті.
Плевропневмония (Pleuropneumonia). This compound name is composed of two
complex components joined with the vowel 'o' in the form 'noun + noun'. The first
component comes from the Latin pleuro ('wall', 'flank') - referring to the thin membrane
around the lungs; and pneumon ('lung'), so that the name of the disease actually signines
the diseased organ itself. Comparing the common names for the disease, we have in
Russian воспаление легких (lit. inflammation of
the lungs), and in Kazakh алаөкпе, тасөкпе (in cows), көбенек (in goats). One of the main
components of the Russian and Kazakh names for the zoonosis is the name of the organ,
lung (Russian легкое; Kazakh өкпе). In Kazakh, the names also differentiate between
species of animal, according to the significance placed upon animals in the nomadic
Kazakh way of life. The Kazakh language also refers to the colour of the infected organ:
ала means 'mottled' or 'speckled' so that алаөкпе is literally 'speckled lung', apparently
because the diseased lung is firm to the touch and permeated with thick reddy yellow
lines. Centuries of empirical experience are echoed in the people's knowledge of human
and animal anatomy alike. This shows us that the Kazakh people knew all the organs
and parts of the animal and their main functions, echoing this knowledge in their
naming of diseases.
Гепатит (Hepatitis). The name in both Russian and Kazakh (as in English) is
directly derived from the Greek hepar (liver), referring to inflammation of the liver.
Motive 4: Psychological condition
This category of motiveme groups together those disease names which refer to
changes in the behaviour and psychology of the diseased animal. Zoonoses in this
category highlight the external characteristics of the disease.
Бешенство (Rabies). The English name comes from the Latin rabidus ('frenzied'; in
Russian 'бешеный').The behaviour of animals infected with the virus is characterised by
aggression, high levels of excitement and irritability. Hence this name. Fasmer describes
the word бешенство in the following way: 'бес relates to the Ukrainian 6ic, Old Slavonic
в^съ, Bulgarian бесм - meaning 'rage'; the Russian word бес also means an 'evil spirit'. In
Russian colloquial language we come across the expressions прийти в бешенство ('to go
into a rage'), вести себя как бес ('to act like a devil'). The Kazakh name for the disease
цұтыру also denotes frenzied, rageful behaviour in the diseased animal, the rampancy of the
diseased condition.
Лихорадка (Fever). V.Dal describes the Russian word in the following way: (1) from
лиховать - Siberian for 'to be in a diseased condition', in the sense of having a fever, a high
temperature etc; (2) wicked, evil. Fasmer presents лихорадка as a synonym of лихоманка:
'лихоманка = лихорадка, малярия [malaria]'. The blasphemous term плутовка is derived
from лихоманить - literally to cause evil, bring harm. Лихорадка also contains the
blasphemous expression 'thank Lichas' ('рада лиху') referring to the Hercules' servant in
Greek mythology, who poisoned his master (in order not to 'enrage' the disease, one
must entreat the disease, to become one with it). In contemporary Russian лихорадка
denotes an inflamed condition, accompanied by high temperatures. In certain animals,
the tongue acquires a purple colour and is sometimes referred to in Russian as 'blue
tongue' ('синий язык').
The Kazakh name for the disease is безгек. Без means 'to take a strong aisiiKe, or
'hostile'. The Etymological Dictionary of Turkic Languages (E.Sevortian, 1980), records that
the root of this word is the Turkic bizgek (fever).
There are many forms of fever. Under different conditions, the same disease can
develop in different ways, depending on natural and climatic facts, as in Maltese Fever,
Rift Valley Fever, Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever.
Чесотка (Scabies). In Russian the name comes from чесать ('to scratch'), to denote
scratching itches and irritations formed on the body, the prolonged, heavy rash, as
defined by Dal (1982).
The Kazakh name цыш^іма қотыр literally means irritating rash. The common
names for the disease are цыршаңцы, құм сірке, көнтек.
Сап (Malleus). The primary motivation of the Latin name is metaphorical. A Malleus
is literally a 'small hammer', and the shape of the bacteria which causes the disease is
reminiscent of a small hammer. In Russian the name has its own motivation. Symptoms
of the disease include bubbling rale, coughing, heavy breathing. Fasmer (1987) records
the origins of the Russian сопение (sniffing) in the Ukrainian сап: a phenomenon
connected with Russian сопля, сопеть (snivel, sniff), which merely alter the vowel. V.Dal
(1982) describes сап in the following way: 'an equine disease with severe symptoms of
cold, completely exhausting the horse until death.' The adjective 'сапатая' is applied to
horses infected with the disease, as is the past tense verb form 'осапатела'.
The Kazakh name аусыл / Russian ящур (foot and mouth disease). Unlike the Russian
name, which is motivated by the attribute 'lizard-like' (как ящур'), the Kazakh name is
based on the psychological condition of the animal during the disease: the diseased
animal is marked by a condition of prostration, with head downcast, often moaning. The
name аусыл refers to the animal 'going out of its mind'.
Motive 5: Similarity to other objects
These sorts of motivemes occur in a small group of zoonoses bearing metaphorical
names in both Russian and Kazakh.
Столбняк (Tetanus). This disease was known of as early as the 2nd-3rd century BC.
Hippocrates described tetanus, drawing attention to the clinical characteristics of the
disease - the stiffening of the muscles. The muscles of the neck, back, and stomach
become stiff. V.Dal describes tetanus as follows: 'a kind of cramp, where part of the
muscle is severely strained, and the infected person lies motionless, like a block or beam
of wood.' C.I.Yuzhegov столб ('a post') as 'a block of wood, a thick beam, fixed upright'.
Thus the similarity of the stiffened muscles to a block of wood during the disease forms
the basis of the Russian name.
The Kazakh cipecne denotes petrifaction, tension, immobility. The Kazakh
L136
expression cipecin қалды literally means 'stiff as a post'. The motives for both the Russian
and Kazakh names are the same and demonstrate the unified nature in which these two
different linguistic groups have chosen to reflect the same concept from the external
world.
Рожа (Erysipelas). This disease mainly affects pigs. It takes a characteristically acute
form, whereby swelling develops in the intermaxillary area of the neck in the diseased
animal. A characteristic symptom is the appearance of dark red spots. Fasmer notes that
the Russian name comes from the Polish roza ('a small flower'), 'because in the course of
the disease the skin takes on a bright red colour' (1987:492).
Чума (Pestis; plague). The literal translation from Latin is 'blight', 'contagion', or
'demise, misfortune'. In Greek and Latin sources, the mass death of animals from an
unknown disease is recorded at the time of the Peloponnesion War (413-404 BC) by
Lucretius (On The Nature of Things). The Russian чума is derived from the Old Russian
шума ('a lump'). The disease is accompanied by the formation of ulcers and 'buds', dark
crimson tubercles. In Russian it is commonly referred to as гнилой горячкой ('rotten
fever'). The Russian verb чумить can be used to mean 'stupefy'.
The Kazakh name оба can mean hill, mound, burial mound, heap. The internal form of
the word makes a comparison between the attributes of the disease and the form of a hill
(a mound, a lump). Common Kazakh names for the disease are the terms қыз ('virgin')
and кемпір ('old wooman').
Оспа (Variola). The Kazakh name for the disease күл refers to 'a small flower'. The
disease is characterised by eruptions on the skin and mucous membranes. In cows,
rose-rashes appear on the skin and udders. The naming of the disease links these
attributes to the flower, the manifestation of the disease in 'flowers' on different parts of
the skin. The Old Russian name for the disease in humans, шешек, literally means 'to
blossom'. The common Kazakh name for the disease қарасан is from the region of Central
Asia in the Middle Ages, Хорасан (now Bukhara), where the antivariolic inoculation was
developed.
Ящур (Apthal epizootical; Foot and mouth disease). The interrelation of meanings of
mouse, dormouse. salamander, otter and lizard ('ящерица') is explained by their closeness in
mythology. V.Dal explains the meaning of the word by the external form of the disease
whereby 'the entire body is covered in scales', the word ящур originally referring to
'silverfish' (1982, vol.4:683). A symptom of the disease is the appearance of exanthemata
(scaly ulcers), hence the connection with lizards and silverfish.
Motive 6: Colour
The are not many zoonoses in this group. The motiveme is usually part of a
description of the disease.
Лейкоз (Leucosis). The name is the same in both Russian and Kazakh. It is an
internationalism. Use of name as an international term in Russian and Kazakh in place
of the older Russian form белокровие and Kazakh цандагы ақ түйіршік көбею can be
explained by the succinctness and precision of the interterminological concept and its
greater semantic resistance. The disease is characterised by an increase in white blood
cells - leukocytes; from the Greek leukos 'white' + kytos 'cell'. Hence the Russian name
белокровие (lit. white-bloodedness). At different times the disease has also been called in
Russian лейкемия (leukemia), рак крови (cancer of the blood), гемобластоз (hemoblastosis);
from the Greek haemo 'blood' + blastos 'sprout, shoot'.
Желтуха (Icterus). A disease of the liver, accompanied by a yellowing of the skin.
The Kazakh name for the disease is саргаю ('to turn yellow'). In common speech it is
referred to as күте-күте саргайдым ('to become sad').
Motive 7: Swiftness of death
Браздот (Bradsot). The disease name is originally taken from the Norwegian bradsot.
Brad means 'sudden', 'immediate', sot 'disease'. This is a highly infectious disease in sheep,
which sets in extremely rapidly and acutely, marked by the sudden death of the
animals.
The Kazakh name is ақтопалаң. Ақ is an infectious disease in cows, sheep and
goats. Animals stricken with ақ produce very dilute milk. Топалаң means 'sudden'. Топ
is a group, лаң means 'blight', the mass killing by the infectious disease. The Аланы were
a tribe, members of which served under Chingiz Khan as bodyguards, men who
punished his enemies. The connection may be in the fact that the disease wipes out
animals in their masses, as the Аланы did people.
Сибирская язва (Anthrax; Splenic fever). Unlike the motive язва (ulcer), which is at the
base of the Russian name, the Kazakh name emphasises the transience of the disease and
the great number of animals it kills. There are several Kazakh names for the disease,
relating to the different animal species it affects: цараталац ('black spleen') in cows;
жамандат ('bad spot') in horses; царабез ('black glands') in camels; үшпа ('fly away') in
sheep. These names are motivated by the dual attributes of colour and the name of the
infected organ.
Motive 8: Living origins
Many diseases are triggered by living organisms, parasites living on the bodies of
animals and causing a decline in meat and milk production.
Эстроз овец (Oestrosis). The pathogen of the disease is oestrus, 'gadfly', 'horsefly'. The
common name for the disease in Kazakh is пысцырыц, reflecting the symptom of the
disease, sneezing (пысцыру).
Ценуроз (Coenurosis; Blind staggers). This refers to brain fever, or cephalitis in animals,
caused by the growth of the tapeworm coenurus. Thus the Latin name of the zoonosis
comes from the tapeworm. The Russian/Kazakh common names for the disease are
вертячка/айналма, motivated by the behaviour of the infected animal. The disease
causes a disruption of brain activity, which expresses itself in the disordered functioning
of the animal's organs, its movement. Sheep and other animals will walk round in
circles.
Аскаридоз (Ascariasis). The disease is brought on by Ascaris roundworms, which is
where the name comes from. The common name for the disease in Kazakh is ж^ілан
құрт {'serpentine worms'). The Russian is глисты (tapeworm).
Motive 9: Geography
Geography determines the area of confinement of certain infectious diseases, which
is reflected in the motivation behind their naming.
Нъюкаслская болезнь (Newcastle disease). This is an acute viral disease in birds. The
English researcher Doyle first observed the disease in 1927 close to Newcastle and so
named the disease after the city. In Kazakh we get the calque name Ньюкасл ауруы.
Алеутская болезнь норок (Aleutian disease virus). The disease was first observed in
Aleutian minks in the USA, hence the name. In Kazakh we get the calque күзеннің
Алеут ауруы {as in Russian, Aleutian mink disease).
Туляремия (Tularemia). The disease was first observed in 1912 in the town of Tulare
in California, USA. The town name then provided the basis for the naming of the
zoonosis.
Кьясанурская лесная болезнь (Kyasanur forest disease). This disease was first spotted
in Kyasanur in India.
Американский гнилец пчел (American foulbrood). The Kazakh name is a calque of the
Russian {and English): бал арасының америкалык, шіріт ауруы.
Motive 10: Name of discoverer
Болезнь Марека (Marek's disease). A disease of birds. The disease was first described
by the Hungarian researcher Marek in 1907. In 1960 it was decided that the disease
should be named in his honour. The Kazakh name takes the calque form Марек ауруы.
Болезнь Ауески (pseudorabies). In Russian the zoonosis is named after the Hungarian
researcher who discovered it, A Auesky. The Kazakh name is a calque of the Russian:
Ауески ауруы (Auesky's disease).
Болезнь Уитмора (Whitmore's Disease). Named after the English researcher. The
Kazakh name is a claque of the Russian {and English): Уитмор ауруы.
This dual language motivological dictionary of nosological units in Russian
and Kazakh, the metalanguage of which in veterinary medical terminology is their Latin
and Greek names, allows us to uncover the areas of similarity and difference in the
motivation of zoonotic terms.
Dual language motivological dictionaries of zoonoses demonstrate the possibility of
developing terminological values from words of national language, by separating it
from its everyday use. This is achieved by the terminological delimitation of common
meanings of these units at the level of expression. While in the naming of animal
diseases, motivation takes on specific forms, both tangible and intangible, it is
nonetheless a common element of all language, a linguistic universal. Before these
names became part of these languages, they were selected for specialised signification
on the basis of metaphor, as in the example of anthrax; 'coal' (Russian: сибирская язва).
But at this point they were not yet part of a terminological system. Then, passing into the
ranks of international term-elements, to a significant degree they lost contact with their
primary semantic relations and found themselves within primary metaphors.
In compiling a dictionary, the choice of a motivating model depends on
intralinguistic and extralinguistic factors. The extralinguistic content of disease names as
phenomena which motivate the plane of expression of the zoonosis determine the
intralinguistic connections between motivator and motivatum. From the extralinguistic
content of motivemes, particular attributes are drawn out (colour, behaviour, anatomy,
etc.) an d their subsequent linguistic expression is simultaneously the selection of a word
- the motivator. For example in the Kazakh безгек (fever), the motivator is the Turkic verb
в [az] ('to tremble, shake'); and in the Russian желтуха (jaundice), the motivator is the
adjective желтый ('yellow').
Having looked at motivemes from the perspective of their scientific conditioning by
national characteristics, we have discovered both similarities and differences. The given
quantitative and qualitative differences, which arise as a result of the motivation of
particular objects - animal diseases - in Russian and Kazakh are conditioned by
extralinguistic and socio-cultural characteristics.
The fact that in the majority of cases the motivemes are common to both languages
can be explained by two principal reasons.
Firstly, zoonoses reflect the distinctive attributes of objects, so that the content of the
motivation is highlighted in these attributes. However unreal the connection between
words and the concepts of specific objects may seem, they are always based on real
attributes, which we call the motives of nomination.
Secondly, the essential unity of the human psyche manifests itself at various levels
of the semantic organisation of language, from broad, consistent trends to isolated
universal phenomena. The laws that govern thought are essentially the same for all
human beings. By virtue of the common nature of human thought, and the universality
in every language of perceiving and cognizing the world
around us, especially through lexical composition, defined representations of the world
are formed according to the worldviews of individual language users. Our motivemes
are the same, but their distinctive design can vary to an almost limitless degree.
Motivation in the naming of animal diseases is uniform at the level of the motiveme, but
varies at the level of the motive, the distinctive attribute.
The fact that a lot of disease names are identical not only at the abstract, motivemic
level, but at the level of the motive, may to some extent prove the objective causality that
unifies motivemic selection in a given area. The specific characteristics of zoonoses as
nosological units of the epizoological term system called veterinary medicine, define
their use in calques and loan words, in both the scientific and common forms of terms.
For example: туберкулез (tuberculosis), бруцеллез (brucellosis), орнитоз (ornithosis).
The choice of one or other motiveme in different languages has extralinguistic
causes. In the Russian linguistic picture of the world, for example, an essential role is
played by disease names that correspond to concepts that do exist in other cultures, but
which are particularly significant in Russian culture and the Russian consciousness.
Relating to this we get the zoonoses оспа (smallpox), чума (plague), лихорадка (fever), язва
(ulcer). These disease names are not only used in the veterinary medical context, but by
the wider society. They correspond to concepts which belong to a pres-cientific era. The
Russian лихорадка (fever) also refers to an excited or restless state; as in биржевая
лихорадка (stock exchange fever), or золотая лихорадка (gold fever). When speaking of a
person's disposition, a Russian language user may refer to someone who appears to be
restless as being in a feverish state (лихорадочное состояние) or having a feverish look
(лихорадочный взгляд). The important role that this word plays in the Russian picture of
the world is the reason it is so frequently used in Russian speech and writing, much
more so than the equivalent zoonosis in Kazakh, безгек. Unique Russian concepts,
corresponding to Russian epizoologisms like ящур (foot and mouth disease), чума (plague),
чахотка (phthisis) represent a further class, which reflects particularly strongly the
specific Russian way of thinking, examples of which are untranslatable. The Russian
expression щур меня, whose contemporary form is чур меня (keep away!) has the
character of sorcery, reflecting a fantastical kind of motivation, mythological ideas
connected to the ancient symbol of the pangolin (ящер). The motive чахнуть (to wither,
pine) behind the zoonosis чахотка (consumption, phthisis) is understood to refer both to a
person's outward and inward state, their emotional condition: a person may pine away
with grief (чахнуть от тоски); a flower may wither away without the sun (чахнет без
солнца); 'she pined away from unrequited love' ('зачахла от безответной любви'). There is
also a prevailing Russian expression consumption of the pocket (карманная чахотка),
which refers to being broke. The Kazakh equivalent жүдеу (also meaning to wither), does
not carry the same emotional weight. The
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