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systematic or functional study in terms of paradigmatics and syntagmatics, the
structural and communicative characteristics of their functionality, in the meta-language
of veterinary medicine. The theoretical and methodological foundations of veterinary
science have previously been developed for the majority of socially significant categories
of non-productive animals. And yet a whole class of terrestrial vertebrates has remained
outside the discipline of veterinary sciences. Diseases of small and exotic animals are one
of the most important problems of modern veterinary medicine.
At this point, the role of this group of animals is actively increasing. Breeding
reptiles (herpetoculture) and keeping them in captivity has rapidly developed in recent
years due to problems of maintaining biodiversity, and their use both as laboratory
animals and pets. Moving these animals in commercial quantities requires strict control,
monitoring and forecasting of the epizootic situation. Given the fairly limited study of
reptile diseases, research into the etiology and pathogenesis of diseases with zoonotic
risk is particularly relevant. Control over the pet trade stipulates not only the
introduction of restrictive measures in the exporting countries and the tightening of
control over the import and export of animals, but also maximum restriction on the
removal of animals from the wild and satisfying the demands of the market at the
expense of breeding reptiles. Exotic animal breeding is on the increase. Reptile farms are
set up outside the tropics - in Europe, USA, Israel, Japan, and so on. In recent years,
reptiles have taken second place after tl^e birds in the market for exotic animals. There is
no data on the annual import of reptiles into Russia and Kazakhstan, but according to
US statistics (D'Aoust et al, 1990; Glynn, 2001) since 1994 these two countries have
imported about 260-800 000 iguanas each year, and that each of these countries is home
to about four and a half million reptiles. There are more than 300,000 privately owned
reptiles, most of which are turtles [163].
Until recently there were no specific research models in veterinary medicine for the
study of reptile pathology. As a result, no theoretical approaches have been developed
for studying the laws governing the development of pathological processes, mechanisms
of the origin, course and outcome of internal diseases, the etiology and morphogenesis
of infectious and parasitic processes, or the surgical pathology of reptiles. The lack of
theoretical grounding has prevented a comprehensive system of terminology in the
methodology of veterinary medicine in reptiles. There is no representative list of reptile
diseases, and many nosological units are insufficiently substantiated or they are formal
calques, borrowed from mammalian medicine. Due to this incompleteness of
terminology there are parallel terms in the scientific literature from medical, veterinary
and zoological nomenclature.
Veterinary terminology has been developed over a long period of time and is
determined by the characteristics of application, subject, object, aims and objectives.
Veterinary science (from the Latin veterinarius: caring for animals,
treating livestock) is the area of science and practical activity dealing with the
prevention and treatment of animal diseases, the protection of people from
zooanthroponoses, the farming of good quality (in terms of veterinary hygiene) animals,
and the protection of the environment from the point of view of veterinary hygiene.
The earliest information on the treatment of animals comes from around 4000 BC,
while the emergence of professional veterinary medicine in Russia can be dated to the
10th-13th centuries AD. The establishment of veterinary science is linked to the
development of medicine, biology, chemistry, physics, and other sciences. K.Bourgelat,
E.Jenner, V.l.Vsevolodov, K.l.Scriabin and others played a major role in the development
of veterinary science. Veterinary science combines epizoology, parasitology, veterinary
health, expertise in veterinary hygiene, clinical diagnostics, therapy, surgery,
pharmacology, zoohygiene along with veterinary microbiology and virology, the normal
and pathological anatomy and physiology of animals. These are all closely connected to
zootechnics.
The main problems of modern veterinary medicine are the development of new
methods for protecting animals from pathogens, primarily human viral and helminthic
infections - i.e. anthropozoonoses; the study of veterinary geography, problems of
epizoological prognosis, veterinary care of farm animals and so on.
Veterinary science emerged, like other sciences, out of the needs of society, and of
material production. The first veterinary school opened in Lyon in 1762. The Horse
Mandate was published in Russia in 1511, and in 1744 the Book of Cattle Medicine.
The development of veterinary science has mainly come about through the
emergence and spread of epizootic animal diseases; zoonotic diseases which have
caused colossal damage to national economies. There is no accurate historical data on
the occurrence of communicable and non-communicable diseases. The biological
sciences posited various theories on the possible foci of infectious animal diseases in
nature. These theories were developed and strengthened at the junction of a number of
related disciplines: zoology and parasitology on the one hand, and human and
veterinary medicine on the other.
It should be noted that human medicine has had a positive impact on the
development of veterinary medicine. The transmission of infectious diseases from
animals to humans, the loss of great numbers of cattle - all this speaks to the common
objectives of human and veterinary medicine.
We must also note that in modern veterinary science veterinarians are primarily
concerned with the preservation of livestock through disease control. Today, the
economic importance of veterinary work is paramount, as livestock becomes more and
more crucial to human food production. The original relationship between man and
animals is also important to consider. This all leads up to the current interest in the
terminology of this field of knowledge, not only among specialists, but among
non-specialists as well.
Veterinary terminology is a collection of terms, used in all areas of this particular
field of knowledge that meet the necessary requirements placed upon terms, which is to
say expediency, order, consistency, etc.
The cognitive aspect of this (or any) terminology comes about in developing this
system of specialised veterinary knowledge, formed over a long period of time under
the influence of internal and external socio-economic factors.
In the process of creating a standardized system of veterinary matters a corpus of
lexical units has been formed, reflecting the developmental stages of the conceptual
mechanisms in this sphere of human activity. However, the question of the evolution
and developmental trends of specialist veterinary vocabulary in Russian and Kazakh
has not yet been the subject of specialised study and demands scientific analysis and
apprehension.
It is important to analyse the veterinary term system in terms of how it reflects the
interaction between single-subject terms systems, in particular, the issue of term systems
(veterinary biology, veterinary chemistry, veterinary physiology, etc.), integrating
secondary 'micro' term systems. Linked to the study of this issue specific feature of
veterinary term system is its comprehensive interdisciplinary nature, which manifests
itself in the heterogeneity of its lexical composition and structural features. For example,
one of the more extensive secondary micro term systems is that of epizoology - an
independent branch of veterinary science that looks at the causes and conditions of the
emergence, spread and implications of infectious animal diseases (zoonoses). Infectious
diseases differ considerably from non-infectious diseases, and occupy a special place in
the pathology of animals. Active economic development and new farming methods in
the twentieth and twenty first centuries, improvements in the quality of methods and
forms of organising veterinary affairs - all this has defined the existing stock of
terminology in this field in modern Russian and Kazakh.
The language of veterinary science is among languages for special purposes - "a
functional variety of newly developed ethnic languages, serving special spheres of
knowledge and activity" [54]. The terminological vocabulary of veterinary science in
Russian and Kazakh, being one of the special branches belonging to functional
languages in the areas of science, manufacturing, and accountancy, differs from other
terminological vocabulary primarily in terms of content.
The volume of modern veterinary terminology is huge. In our opinion, the number
of secondary micro term systems related to scientific veterinary fields, is determined by
such specific features of their lexical structure as a) the particular weighting of
vocabulary in the composition of the term system; b) the variety of sources for the terms;
c) the involvement of entire fragments of the term system; g) high production rate of
compound terms owing to extralinguistic factors.
Written veterinary communication occupies a prominent place among other
forms of communication. Historical records of professional and semi-professional
'healing' goes back several thousands of years (Thucydides' History, Lucretius' On the
Nature of Things: 98-55 BC; Pliny the Elder's Natural History, Vegetius' Digesta Artis
Mulomedicinae, Avicenna's Canon of Medicine).
The texts of different veterinary specialties each carry their own particular linguistic
properties. Every language, including Russian and Kazakh, contains several hundred
thousand terms. In recent years, there has been a particularly large increase in the names
for new methods of instrumental examination of animals, methods of diagnosis, and
methods of treatment.
Specialised vocabulary (of which veterinary terminology and nomenclature is a
part) involves the joint nomination (academic and professional) of a specific area of
knowledge, based in linguistics and having real-life implementation in meta-speech.
Specialised veterinary vocabulary may be defined as highly standardized language for
special purposes of the closed type, with a large amount of standard wording, as
demanded by the rules (norms) for developing and exchanging information on
veterinary science.
Veterinary texts are addressed to a narrow circle of people - exclusively to experts -
and they are characterized by the presence of an officially approved standard . Trends in
standardization indicate a desire for accuracy and informativeness, as they represent a
particularly narrow range of professional communication.
The most important aspects in the theory and practice of veterinary terminology
are: the naming of anatomical and histological nomenclature, the names of organ
functions, the names of research methods, treatments and surgical procedures, the
names of diseases (zoonoses), the names of diagnoses and symptoms, and the names of
medicines. These categories correspond to the following layers of terminology: terms
used in domestic veterinary medicine; terms inherent in international veterinary
medicine; terminology used by individual states.
It should be noted that human life is connected with veterinary science. The words
of a famous veterinary scientist, A.Andrievski, bear this out: "... if medicine treats the
individual human being, then veterinary medicine treats all humankind." It is for this
reason that there is so much interest among specialists and non-specialists alike, in this
field of human knowledge.
A huge number of terms are either Greek or Latin in origin. The desire in veterinary
medicine to accurately express concepts, to neutralize the semantic influence of
commonly used lexemes is one of the reasons for the high incidence of borrowing
terminology from foreign languages.
In Russian and Kazakh veterinary practice, there are two distinctive nomenclatures
for zoonotic terms: both are assigned names in Latin, Russian and Kazakh. The Latin
names equate to each other in terms of their phonic and structural elements. Their
Russian and Kazakh equivalents are Latin names
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transliterated using Russian and Kazakh letters. For example:
Table: Transliteration of Latin zoonotic terms in Russian and Kazakh
Latin
Russian
Kazakh
Leptospirozis
Лептоспироз
Лептоспироз
Candidamycosis
Кандидомикоз
Кандидомикоз
Colibacteriosis
Колибактериоз
Колибактериоз
Leucosis
Лейкоз
Лейкоз
Listeriosis
Листериоз
Листериоз
Pasteurellosis
Пастереллез
Пастереллез
Salmonellosis
Сальмонеллез
Сальмонеллез
Tuberculosis
Туберкулез
Туберкулез
Grippus
Грипп
Грипп
The development of terminology general phenomena in different languages has
unique characteristics in each language, as literary languages and their respective
terminologies have had different historical fates.
Given that in our study we rely on the examples of epizoological term systems in
Russian and Kazakh, it makes sense to give a little more detail on the research area in
question. This will enable us to analyse the lexemes, and their scientific and popular
interpretation.
The term 'epizoology' is made up of two concepts: 'epizootic' (formed from the
Greek 'epi' - on, over, under, after and 'zoon' - animal) and 'logos' (study). The term
'zoonosis' is formed from the Greek 'zoon' (animal) + 'nozos' (disease).
Epizoology is an independent branch of veterinary science that studies the causes,
conditions, and implications of infectious animal diseases (zoonoses). Infectious
(communicable) diseases differ considerably from non-infectious diseases, and have a
special place in the pathology of animals. These diseases occur only through the
activation of a living pathogen. A distinctive feature of these diseases is in the ability for
a particular pathogen to be transmitted from an infected to a healthy animal. This
determines the likelihood of continuous transmission of the pathogen, the scale of
destruction, and range of territorial distribution. Owing to these features, infectious
zoonotic diseases are the most dangerous group of diseases that exist in nature, because
there is this continuous epizootic process, capable under the right conditions of causing
huge economic losses in the form of livestock, as well as being transmitted from animals
to humans in some cases. On this basis, we have good reason to consider the infectious
pathologies of animals a complex, multifaceted problem, the biological, veterinary and
socio-economic aspects of which are explored in many scientific disciplines. It follows
from the above that the study of infectious animal
16
diseases is a complex issue and a special area of veterinary science that combines a
number of different disciplines, including that of Epizoology.
By 'epizoological term' we mean a word or phrase that is the name given to a
scientific concept or object, within the system of concepts and objects that is veterinary
medical science.
Humans have been trying to understand the causes of mass diseases leading to high
mortality in humans and animals from time immemorial. The study of infectious
zoonoses has occupied a substantial period of human development, and modern
epizoology as a system of knowledge on the particular characteristics of infectious
animal diseases and the methods of dealing with them is the result of a long process of
accumulation, systematization, and analysis. Study of the many historical stages in the
formation of methodological knowledge is of great interest in identifying motivation in
the names of zoonoses. Specific practical activities have greatly contributed to the
formation of our medical knowledge. Dissecting cadavers has enriched our anatomical
knowledge; observing othe behavior of sick animals has expanded our medical
knowledge; traditional names form a material basis for scientists to make accurate
judgements on the fairly sophisticated level of traditional veterinary medicine.
The long road in the development of veterinary medicine as a branch of human
knowledge can be divided into two stages, according to the distinctive concepts of
traditional and scientific veterinary medicine.
Folk medicine - the first step in the development of 'healing' - is comprised of the
oral knowledge of the people concerning medicine. Traditional medicine is related to the
emergence of the individual centers civilization the world over. Canons of traditional
medicine then appear in writing, possessing a greater degree of knowledge than folk
medicine. Although traditional medicine is not experimental in the way that scientific
medicine, it laid the foundations for scientific medicine. The formation of scientific
medicine is associated with the liberation of science from religion; the world's scientific
and technological revolutions. Scientific medicine exists above the level of nations,
although it is primarily based on traditional European and Arab systems. Folk medicine
is a part of the material culture of human beings. Picking out individual features of the
traditional names compared with scientific names reflects the linguistic model of the
world of each individual social group.
We must also note that in modern veterinary science veterinarians are primarily
concerned with the preservation of livestock through disease control. Today, the
economic importance of veterinary work is paramount, as livestock becomes more and
more crucial to human food production. The original relationship between man and
animals is also important to consider. This all leads up to the current interest in the
terminology of this field of knowledge, not only among specialists, but among
non-specialists as well.
1. Theoretical and methodological principles
Terminology to be used
1.1. Key terminology used in systemic-typological linguistics
Within the discipline of systemic linguistics, a system is a complex element, which
performs a given function within a super-ordinate hierarchy - a meta-system. The
elements and components of a system are known as its sub-ordinate aspects. The
network of connections and relationships between the components make up the
structure of the system. The material from which the system's sub-ordinate aspects is
formed contains important specificities. The position of the system's elements within a
structure (ie: within a network of connections and relationships) determines the
importance those elements in the structure as a whole.
The most important quality that represents the uniqueness of any system, including
the uniqueness of its language type, is known as a determinant (Melnikov, 1991: 21).
The concept of a 'determinant' in a language originates from the works of V.
Humboldt. He stated that every language has its own unique features. Humboldt's work
was supplemented by J.Baudouin de Courtenay, who considered that every language
type has one leading quality that affects all other areas of the language (Melnikov
1991:20).
To increase the rational nature of the determinant-led approach to the problem of
classification, A. Reformatsky analysed two of the most important determinants of
language: the tendency towards fusion on the one hand, and agglutination on the other.
The internal determinant defines (determines) the specificities of all the particular units
and layers of a language in its systemic relationships. This is because, as the language
system adapts within the meta-system, the specific qualities of all the language's
particular units are established, and are strengthened through an internal determinant of
that language.
The mutually harmonised qualities of a language system's subordinate aspects (ie:
its elements and components) represent the qualities of a system as a whole. This
suggests that the system's essence begins to form at the same time as the system is
undergoing adaptation.
According to G.P.Melnikov's research into systemic typology in linguistics, the
more consistent the particular qualities of a given subject are, the more clearly defined
are the key aspects of that topic. Any topic can be defined objectively with reference to
how consistently its key aspects can be observed. Topics with consistently observable
qualities are considered, from a systemic
Linguistics point of view, to be a well-adapted system. They are systems in which a
determinant, its key qualities and function are present, as well as its own meta-system,
within which the system's key aspects were formed.
Identification of a system's internal determinant makes it possible to predict and
connect all the specific characteristics and processes within a system. It is possible to
discuss the function of a system as part of a meta-system. Similar discussion is possible
about the function of a sub-system as part of a system, of components within a
sub-system and so on, right down to the function of separate elements. (Melnikov,
1991:25).
Given what is set out above, the functional hierarchy of an entire system is often
regarded as fulfilling an overall function, with individual sub-systems serving particular
sub-functions. An entire system's internal determinant could be designated as the
common internal determinant. This designation also recognises internal determinants of
sub-systems within systems, as well as their components. It also emphasises their role as
individual determinants in ensuring that their individual functions are developed and
fulfilled.
The method of systematically describing a language structure through observation
and analysis of its internal determinant is outlined in General Linguistics (1972:82). As a
systemic discipline, linguistics emphasises the importance of internal determinants. As
such, it must also take account of external factors which affect the formation of one or
more internal determinants.
There are a range of external factors considered as typical conditions under which
language systems function within meta-systems. According to G.V.Stepanov, 'languages
are constantly adapting; and they are part of society.' But he adds 'the ability to adapt
itself is the consequence of the language's role in
society.' (Stepanov 1991:12).
If seen in that light, the conditions for language function in systemic linguistics are
external determinants of language. The function of a language system within a
meta-system, that determines the conditions for the particular aspects of each linguistic
sub-division, should be regarded in systemic linguistics as the external determinant of
language.
In relation to a language itself, a meta-system is a social consciousness: it makes a
human an individual and turns them into a member of society. In turn, as a system
within a meta-system, social consciousness should qualify as one of the forms of
common consciousness, whose particularities are determined by its function. For the
majority of terminologists, term is a lexical element - a lexeme -which contains its
linguistic characteristics enriched by a range of additional aspects.
Many terminological problems are the result of insufficient clarity in explaining the
semiotic nature of a term's basic linguistic units. Words and lexical elements form part of
everyday language, as well as specialist vocabulary. But they tend only to become
objects of terminological study when they become
part of a specialist lexical field. By separating linguistic and non-linguistic ways of
thinking, and by extension, linguistic and non-linguistic comprehension, it becomes
clear that knowledge of a language also involves knowledge of a person's understanding
of various other elements, including recognition and simulation of words, their
combinations and their meaning.
Knowing a language means having an appreciation of a single, self-contained
system of communication. This contrasts with personal views and experiences, which
are largely influenced by non-linguistic factors. The area in which someone excels is
imprinted in detail in their non-verbal sphere. The members of a person's professional
environment are usually interested in exchanging experiences. So the need arises to
develop a means of communication that best serves that purpose.
The process described above should be regarded as an inevitable stage in the
evolution of a specialised sub-system of vocabulary, which would eventually transform
into a specialized Terminology for a specific branch of academic research or technology.
As a means of communication, language should, above all, grow and evolve to be able
to reflect shared experiences and understanding of a linguistic community, no matter
what stage of development the values attached to that language are at, and no matter
whether they constitute a structured philosophical system, or simply an understanding
of the world based on narrative and myth. The main aim of developing a shared set of
values as the basis of an individual's consciousness is to ensure as much as possible that
the way in which people understand their environment is integrated into the general
picture at a certain level of detail.
According to Reformatsky (1968) a system's various fields of experience and
understanding are the elements of the Logos. They can be categorised as part of a
system's non-linguistic aspect. They are marked out by being highly interrelated and
interdependent. They only reflect a fragmentary part of world knowledge, but one
which is studied and understood in great depth by a particular part of the academic
community.
The vocabulary used in the general discourse of a particular linguistic community is
an aggregate of lexical units, or signs that constitute the common cultural Logos of that
community. Any educated member of the community has access to these units or signs,
which, as a whole constitute the field of knowledge of a given culture, and
consequently, the entire set of values, experiences and understanding which may be
presented as a national culture.
Certain professional groups within a community, such as academics, will have
more a in-depth knowledge of their area of expertise. Within their set of values,
experiences and understanding, knowledge relating to their areas of specialisation have
become particular and separate, because of the level of detail to which that knowledge
extends. When professional groups need to express their in-depth knowledge in written
or oral form, they begin to use existing
lexical units, which they extended to accommodate the elements of their specialised
knowledge. This is the way in which locally detailed sub-systems of the logical system
of general-purpose language become part of a specialised Terminology.
If terminology is understood in this way, then it may be concluded that (i)
specialised Terminologies do not match those of the general discourse of a linguistic
community and (ii) specialised Terminologies develop organically as a separate branch
from the general discourse of a linguistic community.
The various means of expressing specialised terms tend to be drawn from a range of
metaphorical expressions available in general-purpose discourse and from which
high-register discourse tends to have developed. This is why linguistic terminologies
cannot be said to have divided off from general-purpose discourse. Rather, high-register
discourse could be said to be able to express its potential through the formation of
specialised terminologies.
A lexical field could be considered a system in so far as those who share a specific
topic of interest and use words from its associated lexical field are likely to have shared
experiences and understandings. The development of a specialised Terminology does
not change this; in fact, there is a tendency for some of the more general aspects of a
lexical field to begin deepening the degree to which they express specialised concepts,
thus creating the conditions for a given field of knowledge to move to a more detailed
level.
This section has described the basis o f systemic linguistics in the context of a
common cultural Logos. Once the system has developed, the next issue that might arise
is the formal recognition of a system of factual knowledge that uses linguistic
expressions to denote certain terms.
It appears that factors considered as only necessary for a system of specialised
Terminology, are in fact factors common to wider high-register discourse as well. This
demonstrates that it is impossible to tackle questions about terminology in isolation
from those of the more general discourse of any given language.
1.2. Analysing specialised subject-specific terminologies in Russian
and Kazakh: issues and challenges concerning various aspects of
their theoretical and methodological bases
In the post-industrial age, globalization and multilingualism have strengthened the
role of scientific terminology and technical jargon. Both have become a vital aspect of
progress, which enable a crucial type of communication to take place in all areas of
human activity.
There is little doubt that swift technological development has led to an increase in
the volume of specialised vocabulary. Radical developments in some
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