Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:English for Doctoral Students. Study Guide
.pdf
61
6) The student’s knowledge of mathematics was above the average.
7) Yesterday’s conference was boring.
8) The articles in this journal are reliable.
9) The workshop was rather useful for chemists, but for biologists it
was rather dull.
10) I bought a book which was a monograph I needed.
Ex. 6. Change the following sentences into the Complex Subject
construction.
Example: It seems that the result contradicts the idea. – The result
seems to contradict the idea.
1) It is known that these phenomena have much in common.
2) It is considered that this theory is unreliable.
3) It is well known that this approach has disadvantages.
4) It appears that attention to this problem is growing.
5) It is expected that this method will give a better result.
6) It does not seem that these ideas fit our theory.
7) It is seen that the two lines intercept at this point.
9) It seems that the problem is more complicated.
10) It is proved that this value is constant.
11) It is likely that the idea will be proved.
Ex. 7. Combine the two sentences using the Complex Subject
construction:
Example: The approach is wrong. This has recently been shown. –
The approach has recently been shown to be wrong.
1) The results are valid. This has been shown.
2) The effect is due to radiation. This has been thought until very
recently.
3) Such an experiment is quite valid. This has been recently proved.
4) These findings are invalid. This has recently been shown.
5) This method is much better. This has recently been demonstrated.
6) The substance has a complex structure. It has recently been found.
7) The data are valid. This has been shown.
8) The processes are interrelated. This has been found.
9) The concept is wrong. This has recently been stated.
10) This hypothesis does not agree with experimental evidence.
This has been reported.
Ex. 8. Translate the following sentences into English:
1) В XIX в. было замечено, что свойства элементов зависят от
их атомного веса.
2) Известно, что электронный микроскоп сыграл решающую
роль в раскрытии многих явлений микромира.
3) Известно, что идея об атомном строении материи высказыва-
лась еще философами древности.
4) Объем научной информации растет, и этот процесс, кажется,
идет с увеличивающейся скоростью.
5) В настоящее время наука, видимо, играет более важную роль
в жизни общества, чем несколько десятилетий назад.
6) Когда оказалось, что полученные цифры значительно расхо-
дятся с ожидаемым результатом, был сделан вывод, что при планировании эксперимента была допущена ошибка.
7) По-видимому, сейчас есть все основания считать, что про-
блема рака будет успешно решена в недалеком будущем.
8) В начале XX в. было показано, что свет имеет двойную
природу.
9) В начале 1950-х гг. было установлено, что молекула ДНК
представляет собой двойную спираль.
10) Из фактов, накопившихся к тому времени, был сделан вы-
вод, что эти два понятия определенным образом связаны друг с другом.
Ex. 9. Provide a brief summary of hypotheses, findings and data
of your research using the Complex Subject construction.
62
U n i t 8 . A C A D E M I C W R I T I N G
Formal
Формальный
In terms of
С точки зрения
Preconceptions
Предубеждения
Assert (v)
Утверждать
Impartial
Беспристрастный, непредвзятый
Slang
Сленг
Contraction
Сокращение
Conversation phrase
Разговорная фраза
Share (v)
Делиться
Confidence
Уверенность
Coherent
Последовательный
Cite (v)
Цитировать
Reference list
Список литературы
Claim
Утверждение
Reflect (v)
Размышлять
Quote (v)
Цитировать
Convince (v)
Убеждать
Proofread
Корректура, вычитка
Rule
Правило
Submit (v)
Подать, предоставить (в печать)
A c t i v e v o c a b u l a r y
Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities and
scholarly publications. You’ll encounter it in journal articles and books on
academic topics, and you’ll be expected to write your essays, research papers, and dissertation in academic style. Academic writing follows the same
writing process as other types of texts, but it has specific conventions in terms
of content, structure and style.
Different fields of study have different priorities in terms of the writing they produce. For example, in scientific writing it’s crucial to clearly and
accurately report methods and results; in the humanities, the focus is on constructing convincing arguments through the use of textual evidence. However, most academic writing shares certain key principles intended to help
convey information as effectively as possible.
63
64
Academic writing aims to convey information in an impartial way.
The goal is to base arguments on the evidence under consideration, not
the author’s preconceptions. All claims should be supported with relevant
evidence, not just asserted. To avoid bias, it’s important to represent the work
of other researchers and the results of your own research fairly and accurately. This means clearly outlining your methodology and being honest
about the limitations of your research.
The formal style used in academic writing ensures that research is
presented consistently across different texts, so that studies can be objectively assessed and compared with other research. Because of this, it’s important to strike the right tone with your language choices. Avoid informal
language, including slang, contractions, clichés, and conversational phrases:
Avoid hedging your claims with words like «perhaps», as this can
give the impression that you lack confidence in your arguments. Reflect on
your word choice to ensure it accurately and directly conveys your meaning:
This could perhaps suggest that … – This suggests that …
Specialist language or jargon is common and often necessary in academic writing, which generally targets an audience of other academics in
related fields. However, jargon should be used to make your writing more
concise and accurate, not to make it more complicated. A specialist term
should be used when:
– It conveys information more precisely than a comparable non-specialist term.
– Your reader is likely to be familiar with the term.
– The term is commonly used by other researchers in your field.
– The best way to familiarize yourself with the kind of jargon used
in your field is to read papers by other researchers and pay attention to their
language.
An academic text is not just a collection of ideas about a topic – it
needs to have a clear purpose. Start with a relevant research question or thesis
statement, and use it to develop a focused argument. Only include information that is relevant to your overall purpose.
A coherent structure is crucial to organize your ideas. Pay attention
to structure at three levels: the structure of the whole text, paragraph structure, and sentence structure.
Academic writing uses sources to support its claims. Sources are
other texts (or media objects like photographs or films) that the author analyzes or uses as evidence. Many of your sources will be written by other
academics; academic writing is collaborative and builds on previous
65
research. You must always cite your sources in academic writing. This means
acknowledging whenever you quote or paraphrase someone else’s work by
including a citation in the text and a reference list at the end.
As well as following the rules of grammar, punctuation and citation,
it’s important to consistently apply stylistic conventions regarding:
– How to write numbers.
– Introducing abbreviations.
– Using verb tenses in different sections.
– Capitalization of terms and headings.
– Spelling and punctuation differences between UK and US English.
In some cases there are several acceptable approaches that you can
choose between – the most important thing is to apply the same rules consistently, and to carefully proofread your text before you submit.
(https://www.scribbr.com/category/academic-writing/)
V o c a b u l a r y e x e r c i s e s
Ex. 1. Translate from English into Russian:
Formal style, scholarly publications, journal articles and books, academic topics, to write your essays, research papers, and dissertation, specific
conventions, structure and style, fields of study, different priorities, to clearly
and accurately report methods and results, convincing arguments, textual
evidence, key principles, to convey information, to base arguments on
the evidence under consideration, claims should be supported, to avoid bias,
to objectively assess, language choice, to lack confidence, to target the audience, concise and accurate, a clear purpose, a coherent structure, to support
claims, cite your sources.
Ex. 2. Translate from Russian into English:
Содержание, структура и стиль, академическое письмо, различные типы текстов, представить работу, сравнивать с другими исследованиями, вопрос исследования, тезис, выбор слов, передавать информацию, специальный язык, специальный термин, сложный, быть знакомым с термином, четкая цель, организовать идеи, структура текста, абзац, доказательства, предыдущие исследования, цитировать, перефразировать, библиография, применять, числа, приемлемые подходы, тщательно вычитывать.
66
Ex. 3. Match the words from the columns to make up word combinations:
To write
Research
Paper
To submit
Relevant
Journal
To convey
Special
Text
To cite
Clear
Sources
To have
Academic
Evidence
To use
Concise
Information
To lack
Accurate
Terms
To present
Convincing
Arguments
To include
Different
Purpose
To develop
Strong
Citation
Ex. 4. Complete the sentences using the text above:
1) A formal style of writing is used in …
2) Academic writing shares certain key principles intended to …
3) The goal of academic writing is …
4) All statements must be proved by …
5) The research should be presented consistently across …
6) Avoid …
6) Jargon should be used only …
8) An academic text must have …
9) The sources …
10) It is important to follow the rules …
Ex. 5. Answer the following questions:
1) What are the differences and similarities between scientific and
humanitarian papers?
2) What is the aim of the academic writing?
3) What does the formal style of the text ensure?
4) Why is it important to reflect on the word choice?
5) Why is it necessary to use specialist language?
6) What should one start with writing an academic text?
7) What kind of information should be included in the text?
8) Why is it necessary to organize your ideas?
9) What kind of sources are used in academic writing?
10) Why must we cite the sources?
67
G r a m m a r r e v i e w
Sequence of tenses
The rules governing verb tenses are dictated by logic; an action in
the future obviously cannot happen before an action in the past. The past
must precede the present, the present must precede the future, and so on.
Particular attention should be paid to the sequence of verbs when there is
a dependent clause before an independent clause or a result clause before
an if clause. So, the sequence of tenses rule can be formulated as follows:
the tense of the verb-predicate in the subordinate (dependent) clause depends
on the tense of the verb-predicate in the main (independent) clause.
The sequence of tenses rule is used in the following cases:
– If in the main clause the verb-predicate is in the present or future
tense, then the verb-predicate in the subordinate clause can be in any tense
form that is required by the meaning:
Не says that he needed help. – Он говорит, что нуждался в по-
мощи вчера.
Не says that he will need help. – Он говорит, что ему понадо-
бится помощь завтра.
Не says that he needs help. – Он говорит, что нуждается в помощи.
– If in the main clause the verb-predicate is in the past tense, then in
the subordinate clause the verb-predicate is also used in one of the forms of
the past. The tense of the verb-predicate in the subordinate clause may not
change, i. e. stay in the present tense when it comes to eternal truths.
In the subordinate clause, a verb is used in one of the forms of
the past indefinite or past continuous tense if the action of the subordinate
clause occurs simultaneously with the action of the main clause:
Не told me that he studied here. – Он сказал мне, что учится здесь.
She said she was preparing for a report. – Она сказала, что гото-
вится к докладу.
– If the action of the subordinate clause precedes the action of the main
clause, then the verb in the past perfect tense is used in the subordinate clause:
The senior researcher said that the experiment had been redesigned. – Старший научный сотрудник сказал, что эксперимент был
переделан.
68
– If the action of the subordinate clause refers to the future tense,
and in the main clause the action refers to the past, then the verb-predicate must be used in Future-in-the-Past. The Future-in-the-Past form is
formed from the corresponding forms of Future Tenses, but should is
used instead of the auxiliary verb shall, and would is used instead of
the auxiliary verb will.
I thought I should know the effective method this time, but I was
wrong. – Я думал, что на этот раз я узнаю эффективный метод, но
я ошибся.
The sequence of tenses rule is not used:
– If the predicate in the subordinate clause includes one of the following modal verbs: must, ought, should.
I knew that he must come to the University by 3 o’clock. – Я знал,
что он должен прийти в университет к 3 часам.
– If the subordinate clause reports a well-known fact or undeniable truth:
The Professor told the students that polymer is a large molecule, or
macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. – Профессор рас-
сказал студентам, что полимер – это большая молекула или макромолекула, образованная из многих повторяющихся подъединиц.
– In relative attributive clauses and in sentences introduced by conjunction words as (как, в качестве), than (чем):
The process was faster yesterday than it is today. – Yesterday
the process was faster than today.
– If the action of the subordinate clause precedes the action of the main
clause, and the time of the action of the subordinate clause is indicated exactly:
I knew that she left Kazan in 2016. – Я знала, что она уехала из
Казани в 2016 г.
I knew that she had left Kazan some years ago. – Я знала, что она
уехала из Казани несколько лет назад.
G r a m m a r e x e r c i s e s
Ex. 1. Translate the following sentences into Russian:
1) When I arrived at the conference, it had already started.
2) She said it took her two weeks to write a paper.
3) I knew that my research would be a success.
69
4) I thought I had read my text carefully, but it was full of mistakes.
5) I hoped I would be given a new topic of research.
6) It was expected that the new heating technique would give a better
result than in the previous experiments.
7) It became evident that we would not be able to bring our experi-
ment to conclusion.
8) It was shown that DNA regulates protein synthesis.
9) He told me that I had to start with a relevant research question.
10) It was announced that the delegation had arrived in time.
Ex. 2. Put the sentences into the Past Indefinite in the main clauses.
Example: It is shown that the changes are profound. – It was shown
that the changes were profound.
1) It is considered that the cells have different functions.
2) It is proved that the theory is valid.
3) It is observed that the particle beams diverge.
4) It is demonstrated that the substance precipitates.
5) It is shown that the reaction is reversible.
6) It is known that the material has wonderful properties.
7) It is assumed that the mechanism is purely regulatory.
8) It is suggested that this case obeys the same rule.
9) It is proved that the genes are localized in chromosomes.
10) It is known that the atomic nucleus is a source of great power.
Ex. 3. Open the brackets making up sentences.
Example: They are working in the garden. (We were
sure). – We were sure that they were working in the garden.
1) I have never been to London. (I told).
2) Tom hasn’t passed his exam yet. (She knew).
3) He is translating the paper. (I saw).
4) Sarah is a leader of this research group. (Everybody knew).
5) He doesn’t agree. (He told).
6) She hasn’t done her homework. (She said).
7) I don’t like going to conferences. (I told them).
8) She doesn’t know how much time the experiment takes. (Mike
told me).
9) We will come again next year. (We wrote them).
10) He has already observed this phenomenon. (He didn’t tell us).
70
Ex. 4. Open the brackets using appropriate verb tense:
1) He can’t remember where he (to read) about this phenomenon.
2) Gill thought the technique (to be) wrong.
3) She was disappointed that she (not to get) the job.
4) I didn’t understand why they (to destroy) their experiment setting.
5) He is not sure they (to find) the solution of the problem.
6) Jake asked me if I (to invite) Mary to the meeting.
7) She said she (to wait) for me since five o’clock.
8) They thought I (to give) them my telephone number.
9) I am afraid I (not can) answer your question.
10) Graham thought he (can) repair the apparatus himself.
Ex. 5. Introduce the following statements with it-phrases.
Example: The cell has a complex structure. – It was known that
the cell has a complex structure.
1) Reproduction is a common property of living matter.
2) The cells differ in their function.
3) The DNA molecule has a helical structure.
4) Genes are arranged linearly.
5) Freshly grown graphene displays an excessive negative charge.
6) Some substances act as catalysts.
7) The earth is surrounded by a magnetic belt.
8) Chemical elements show a certain periodicity in their properties.
9) The atomic nucleus contains smaller particles.
10) The atom is electrically neutral.
Ex. 6. Speak about scientific ideas and discoveries of the past
in sentences beginning with it-phrases.
Example:
1) It was believed in ancient times that the earth was the center of
the Universe.
2) It was shown in the late 1930’s that the atomic nucleus was
a source of great power.
Ex. 7. Work in pairs. Ask your partner about their research and
retell your dialogue.
Example: Have you already conducted an experiment? – Yes,
I have. Ann said that she had already conducted an experiment.
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]