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Файл:English for Doctoral Students. Study Guide
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I am glad to study at the post-graduate school. – Я рад, что учусь
в аспирантуре.
I am glad to have studied at the post-graduate school. – Я рад, что
учился в аспирантуре.
Functions of the infinitive:
– The infinitive can be a subject in a sentence.
To listen to Professor Smith’s lecture was very useful. – Послушать
лекцию профессора Смита было очень полезно.
To practice a lot is to speak English well. – Много практиковаться – значит лучше говорить по-английски.
– Adverbial modifier of purpose.
To read the book I went to the library. – Чтобы прочитать эту
книгу, я пошел в библиотеку.
– Attribute. The infinitive as an attribute is translated into Russian
in three ways:
1) Аs a relative attributive sentence with a modal predicate.
He is going to take part in the conference to be held in Kazan. –
Он собирается принять участие в конференции, которая должна состояться в Казани.
2) As the indefinite form of the verb.
I have nothing to do. – Мне нечего делать.
3) As the personal form of the verb, if the definition refers to the or-
dinal number.
He was the first to speak. – Он говорил первым.
– The Object.
He was glad to have been given a new task. – Он был рад, что ему
дали новое задание. I decided to try this method. – Я решил испытать
этот метод.
– Part of the Compound Verbal Predicate (sometimes Modal).
You may come in. – Вы можете войти.
My wish is to get the grant. – Мое желание – получить грант.
G r a m m a r e x e r c i s e s
Ex. 1. Translate the following sentences, pay attention to the infinitives:
1) The journal on nanotechnology must be published next year will
cover only fundamental research in this area.
2) The conference on polymers will be held in Kazan in September.
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3) The scientific meeting to be held next year by our University will
refer to both experimental and theoretical aspects of research in plasma phenomena.
4) The data to be reported show the possibility of this mechanism,
but this is to be tested.
5) To collect all the data during one experiment would be completely
impossible.
6) We consider this problem to be solved.
7) The attempts to explain the errors were made.
8) For shortness of time many of the important factors to be only
briefly mentioned.
9) I like to participate in scientific conferences.
10) It is very important to be published in «The Journal of Petro
chemistry».
Ex. 2. Substitute the attribute clause by the passive infinitive.
Example: The question which will be discussed. – The question to
be discussed.
1) The conference which is to be held in June.
2) The concept which must be discussed.
3) The experiments which should be conducted.
4) The data which will be described.
5) The gap which must be filled.
6) The question which must be answered.
7) The design which should be created.
8) The requirements which must be met.
9) The reports which will be given.
10) The works which will be cited here.
Ex. 3. Complete the sentences with the information relevant to
your work.
Example: The questions to be discussed at the next seminar … –
The questions to be discussed at the next seminar will concern our current work.
1) The findings to be presented in this paper …
2) The literature to be reviewed in this paper …
3) The result to be considered in this paper …
4) The questions to be presented at the next conference …
5) The studies to be discussed at the next seminar …
6) The improvements to be made in organization of research …
7) The problems to be cleared up in the first place …
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8) The conditions to be met in the experiments …
9) The difficulty to be resolved in the first place …
10) The problems to be considered at the next seminar …
Ex. 4. Describe the questions to be considered in your next paper.
Use the infinitives listed below.
Example: The results to be presented in my paper come from the ap-
plication of a new experimental method.
1) To be given; 2) to be described; 3) to be discussed; 4) to be covered;
5) to be analyzed; 6) to be mentioned; 7) to be considered in detail; 8) to be
emphasized; 9) to be omitted; 10) to be quoted.
Ex. 5. Change the following sentences using there is/are.
Example: Much work is to be done on nanomaterials. – There is much
work to be done on nanomaterials. Some old methods should be revived.
1) A gap in these studies must be filled.
2) A gap in the results must be explained.
3) Some difficulties are to be resolved in this field.
4) One point should be emphasized in this connection.
5) Two questions are to be answered in this connection.
6) Many practical problems are to be solved in this field.
7) Many questions are to be covered during this lecture.
8) Some comments should be made on this point.
9) Some improvement must be made in this technique.
Ex. 6. Give a few examples of what there is to be done in your
science in the years to come.
Example:
1) There is still much to be learned about biofuels before we can fully
substitute fossil fuels.
2) There is much to be done in the coming years in the field of car-
bohydrate metabolism.
Ex. 7. Define the forms of the Infinitive (Passive or Active; Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect or Perfect Continuous) in the following
sentences.
1) I want to see your design.
2) The paper can be reviewed.
3) The error must be found.
4) We knew him to be working in the lab.
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5) I remember to have seen her somewhere.
6) We thought the mistake to have been found.
7) He must have been working all night.
8) She appeared to have been leading a very serious research before.
9) It’s nice to be discussing this idea with you.
10) It’s good to have finished work for the day.
11) I’m sorry not to have come on Friday.
12) I appear to have made a small mistake.
13) I didn’t expect to be invited.
14) There is a lot of work to do.
15) There is a lot of work to be done.
Ex. 8. State the functions of the Infinitive in the sentences.
1) To say is to act.
2) To increase the temperature means to reduce the yield.
3) To maintain the pressure is the better thing in this case.
4) The problem was to get there in time.
5) Our duty is to help this man.
6) He began to read this story yesterday.
7) He can’t change the temperature.
8) He wanted to analyze the sample.
9) He prefers to read books in the original.
10) She was the first to come.
11) There was only one parameter to rely on.
12) There is no chance to get a real result.
Ex. 9. Replace the subordinate clauses by infinitives in various
functions.
Example: The student is very proud that he presented his report to
the audience. – The student is very proud present his report to the audience.
1) I am proud that I have completed this work by the 1-st of April.
2) We are glad that we have found this paper.
3) There is a device in the lab which maintains the pressure.
4) She said she was sorry that she hadn’t conducted a literature review.
5) I’m sorry that I didn’t come on Wednesday.
6) We have modern measuring tools which you can use in your ex-
periments.
7) He put forward some good ideas which he will present in his report.
8) Liza was surprised when she heard Tom’s voice.
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U n i t 5 . M E T H O D S O F R E S E A R C H
A c t i v e v o c a b u l a r y
Purpose
Цель
Observation
Наблюдение
Explore (v)
Изучать
Novel
Новый
Scale
Шкала, масштаб
Descriptive
Описательный
Intervene (v)
Вмешиваться
Validity
Достоверность, валидность
The sampling method
Метод отбора проб
Vary (v)
Различаться, менять
Measure
Измерять
Variable
Переменная
Experience
Опыт (жизненный, профессиональный)
Experiment
Опыт (эксперимент)
Cause and effect
Причина и следствие
Case study
Анализ ситуации, кейс-стади
Flexible
Гибкий
Judgement
Суждение
Frequency
Частота
Average
Средний, усредненный
Tend (v)
Иметь тенденцию
Relationship
Отношения
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing
data. Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering
your research question. The type of data you need depends on the aims of
your research.
Primary data is any original information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question (e. g. through surveys, observations and experiments). Secondary data is information that has already been
collected by other researchers. If you are exploring a novel research question,
you’ll probably need to collect primary data. But if you want to synthesize
existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large
scale, secondary data might be a better choice.
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In descriptive research, you collect data about your study subject
without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method.
In experimental research, you systematically intervene in a process and
measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design. To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your
independent variable, precisely measure your dependent variable, and control
for confounding variables. If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method
is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.
Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis. Data can often be analyzed both
quantitatively and qualitatively.
Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected from open-ended
survey and interview questions, literature reviews, case studies, and other
sources that use text rather than numbers. Qualitative analysis tends to be
quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect
carefully on your choices and assumptions.
Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments). You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either during an experiment, or using probability sampling methods. Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.
(https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/methodology/)
V o c a b u l a r y e x e r c i s e s
Ex. 1. Translate from English into Russian:
Research methods, specific procedures, collecting and analyzing
data, to collect information, for the purposes, answering a research question,
the type of data, to depend on the aims, primary data, original information,
through surveys, observations and experiments, secondary data, to explore
a novel research question, to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, identify patterns on a large scale, in descriptive research, the validity of a research, to depend on a sampling method, to measure
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the outcome, to conduct an experiment, to vary an independent variable, to
measure a dependent variable, practically and ethically possible, questions
about cause and effect, open-ended survey.
Ex. 2. Translate from Russian into English:
Собирать первичные данные, существующие знания, качественный анализ, количественный анализ, описательные методы, экспериментальные методы, в большом масштабе, анализ конкретной ситуации, независимые переменные, изменять переменные, средние показатели и корреляции, причинно-следственные связи, литературный
обзор, во время эксперимента, анализировать данные, интерпретировать данные, зависеть от, метод отбора проб (выборки), валидность исследования, статистически достоверный способ.
Ex. 3. Match the words from the columns to make up word combinations:
To depend on
A research question
To measure
Data
To collect
Information
To analyze
Variables
Valid
Methods
Experimental
Research
Descriptive
Analysis
Quantitative
Outcomes
Independent
Relationship
To explore
Choice
Ex. 4. Decide if the statements are true or false:
1) Research methods are ways to obtain information during a research.
2) The information that you collect for the purposes of answering
your research question is regarded as data.
3) The data that you collect during a research does not depend on
the aims of your research.
4) Secondary data is any original information that you collect for
the purposes of answering your research question.
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5) Primary data is information that has already been collected by
other researchers.
6) Secondary data is a better choice when you need to synthesize exist-
ing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale.
7) In experimental research, you collect data about your study sub-
ject without intervening.
8) You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was col-
lected from open-ended survey and interview questions.
9) Frequencies, averages and correlations are determined through
qualitative analysis.
10) During an experiment you are able to vary your independent
variable.
Ex. 5. Answer the following questions:
1) What do we need to collect and analyze data during a research?
2) What does the type of data depend on?
3) When do we need primary data?
4) What is secondary data?
5) How can data be analyzed?
6) What is qualitative analysis used for?
7) What is quantitative analysis used for?
8) What is the difference between descriptive and experimental
research?
9) In what type of research can you systematically intervene in a pro-
cess and measure the outcome?
10) In what type of analysis can the results be easily standardized
and shared among researchers?
G r a m m a r r e v i e w
The participle
The participle is an impersonal form of a verb that combines
theproperties of a verb, an adjective and an adverb. In Russian, it corresponds to participle and gerund (in English there is no separate form corresponding to Russian gerund).
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There are two participles in English:
Participle I (or the Present Participle) has two forms:
a) Present Participle Simple corresponds to the Russian participle of
the present tense and the imperfect participle (reading – читающий, читая;
resting – отдыхающий, отдыхая);
b) Present Participle Perfect corresponds to the Russian perfect participle (having written – написав; having read – прочтя).
Participle II (or Past Participle). The past participle from transitive
verbs corresponds to the Russian passive participle of the past tense (opened –
открытый; dressed – одетый; made – сделанный).
The English participle has the properties of an adjective, adverb and
verb. As an adjective, the participle performs the function of an attribute to
a noun in a sentence and corresponds to the Russian participle: A broken flask
lay on the floor. – Разбитая колба лежала на полу.
The verbal properties of the participle are expressed in the fact that
it can have a direct object:
Entering the room, he found all the students present. – Войдя в комнату, он увидел, что все студенты присутствуют.
He liked to rest in the evening reading books. – Он любил отдыхать вечером, читая книги.
Formation of participle forms:
Present Participle Simple (Active) – a simple form, formed by
adding -ing to the base form of the verb, (form with -ing, or IV form).
Present Participle Simple (Passive) – is formed using the auxiliary
verb to be in -ing form Present Participle Simple (being) and the main verb
in the Past Participle form: -ed form or III form.
Present Participle Perfect (Active) – is formed using the auxiliary
verb to have in the form of Present Participle Simple, namely, having and
the main verb in the Past Participle form (form with -ed or III form).
Present Participle Perfect (Passive) – is formed using the auxiliary verb to be in the form of Present Participle Perfect, namely, having
been and the main verb in the form of Past Participle (form with -ed or
III form).
Participle II (Past Participle) – has only one Voice form (Passive). According to the type of formation, this is the III form of the verb
or -ed form.
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Negative forms of the participle are formed by putting the particle
not before the participle, for example: not asking – не спрашивая, not seen –
невидимый, not being read – непрочитанный.
G r a m m a r e x e r c i s e s
Ex. 1. Translate the following sentences:
1) In this paper we survey the possibilities arising from the applica-
tion a new method.
2) I will give a review of papers covering the most relevant problems
in the field of polymer decomposition.
3) In this experiment we obtained a large variation of density values
ranging from several to tens of thousands of cells per cubic centimeter.
4) The present work is a survey of the electron transfer mechanisms
and collision processes.
5) This paper primarily considers the events accompanying solar
radiation.
6) The transformations taking place in such reactions have been
listed explicitly in a number of works.
7) Let us look at the schematic representation of this process show-
ing quite clearly the starting point of the event.
8) The side effects complicating this picture can be ignored for
the time being without making the situation look oversimplified.
9) All papers concerning biological aspects of space flights will be
presented at the conference.
10) This conference has brought together a large number of researchers
working in the rapidly developing area of high-energy physics.
Ex. 2. Say what sort of processes reactions or phenomena you
study. Use present participle constructions.
Example:
1) I deal with particle interactions taking place in hot plasma.
2) We study optical phenomena occurring in crystals in certain ex-
perimental conditions.
Ex. 3. Change the attribute clause into the participle construction.
Example: The transformations which underlie this process are quite
obscure. – The transformations underlying this process are quite obscure.
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