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Файл:English for Doctoral Students. Study Guide
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1) The process which occurs in this case is well known.
2) The transformations which result in ion production are known.
3) The factors which govern this reaction are intensively studied.
4) The phenomena which accompany this reaction are well understood.
5) The structures which surround the cell nucleus are well known.
6) The effects which result from radiation are carefully studied.
7) The mechanism which plays an important role here is still obscure.
8) The processes which occur in the cell nucleus are not well un-
derstood.
9) The difficulties which arise in this case are surmountable.
10) The changes which lead to this effect deserve close attention.
Ex. 4. Translate the following sentences:
1) The results presented here add to our knowledge of the ion
transport mechanism.
2) A glance at the table shown here leads us to the conclusion that
the result lies far beyond our expectation.
3) The essential point of this talk is to give a unified treatment of
the seemingly unrelated data cited above.
4) The evidence presented points to the possible existence of a com-
mon mechanism for these changes.
5) A theoretical treatment of the problem concerned keeps in line
with the main purpose of this paper.
6) Within the accuracy of the data described these rules are strikingly
well satisfied.
7) For want of a better analogy we shall turn to the one given in
an earlier paper.
8) The fundamental point of our approach is to use profitably
the knowledge gained during the past two years.
9) In the two chapters which follow we shall try to survey the prob-
lems listed above.
10) For details the reader is referred to the paper by Goldman and
coworkers published in 1990.
Ex. 5. Substitute the attribute clause by the past participle.
Example: The data which have been obtained. – The data obtained.
1) The data which have been presented.
2) The effect which has been predicted.
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3) The question which has been examined.
4) The theory which has been advanced.
5) The method which has been suggested.
6) The relation which has been demonstrated.
7) The experiments which have been described.
8) The papers which have been referred to.
9) The specificity which has been observed.
10) The problem which has been considered.
11) The information which has been collected.
12) The studies which have been undertaken.
Ex. 6. Change the verb into the past participle and complete
the sentence.
Example: The papers were given at the congress. – The papers given
at the congress were concerned with theoretical and experimental problems
of solid-state physics.
1) The session was chaired by Prof. Jackson.
2) The review papers were given by well-known scientists.
3) The participants were offered a wide choice of scientific books.
4) The invited papers were given at the plenary sessions.
5) The abstracts of papers were available in a book.
6) The social program was published in four languages.
7) The congress proceedings were published in three volumes.
8) Simultaneous translation of papers was provided at the congress.
9) Smaller rooms were arranged for private discussions.
10) The resolutions were adopted unanimously.
Ex. 7. Add a past participle construction to the subject.
Example: The papers were concerned with general problems of
genetics. – The papers given at the morning sessions were concerned with
general problems of genetics.
1) The data are in full agreement with the theory.
2) The data were obtained at our laboratory.
3) The information is available in literature.
4) The arguments is well founded.
5) The results are consistent with our assumption.
6) The method is best suited for our purpose.
7) The inconsistency of the conclusion is quite evident.
8) The studies are under way at many laboratories.
9) The evidence points to the existence of a feed-back mechanism.
10) The results are against this assumption.
Ex. 8 Add a past participle construction to the object.
Example: We made use of the results. – We made use of the results
recently published in «The Journal of Biological Chemistry».
1) I attended the session.
2) I commented on the paper.
3) I mentioned the work.
4) Dr. Smith presented new results.
5) He considered the advantages of the technique.
6) He cited the data.
7) He supported the suggestion.
8) He emphasized the difficulties.
9) He summarized the information.
10) Everyone agreed with the opinion.
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U n i t 6 . E X P E R I M E N T S
A c t i v e v o c a b u l a r y
Causal
Причинно-следственный
Manipulate (v)
Манипулировать, обращаться
Effect
Эффект, воздействие
Test (v)
Тестировать, проверять
Hypothesis
Гипотеза
Define (v)
Определять
Main
Главный
Prediction
Предсказание, прогноз
Extraneous
Внешний
Confound (v)
Затрудняющий
Control (v)
Контролировать, управлять
Treatment
Обработка
Affect (v)
Влиять, воздействовать
Obtain (v)
Получать, приoбретать
Apply (v)
Применять, использовать
Reliable
Надежный
Bias
Отклонение
Error
Ошибка
Take into account (v)
Учитывать
Turn (v)
Повернуться, превратить(-ся)
Produce
Производить, создавать
Experiments are used to study causal relationships. You manipulate
one or more independent variables and measure their effect on one or more
dependent variables. Experimental design means creating a set of procedures
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to systematically test a hypothesis. A good experimental design requires
a strong understanding of the system you are studying.
There are five key steps in designing an experiment:
Step 1. Define your variables. You should begin with a specific research question. To translate your research question into an experimental hypothesis, you need to define the main variables and make predictions about
how they are related. Start by simply listing the independent and dependent
variables. Then you need to think about possible extraneous and confounding
variables and consider how you might control them in your experiment. Finally, you can put these variables together into a diagram. Use arrows to
show the possible relationships between variables and include signs to show
the expected direction of the relationships.
Step 2. Write your hypothesis. Now that you have a strong conceptual understanding of the system you are studying, you should be able to
write a specific, testable hypothesis that addresses your research question.
The next steps will describe how to design a controlled experiment. In a controlled experiment, you must be able to:
– Systematically and precisely manipulate the independent variable(s).
– Precisely measure the dependent variable(s).
– Control any potential confounding variables.
Step 3. Design your experimental treatments. How you manipulate
the independent variable can affect the experiment’s external validity – that
is, the extent to which the results can be generalized and applied to
the broader world. First, you may need to decide how widely to vary your
independent variable.
Step 4. Assign your samples to treatment groups. How you apply
your experimental treatments to your test samples (substances, subjects) is
crucial for obtaining valid and reliable results. You also need to consider
the study size: how many parameters will be included in the experiment?
Step 5. Measure your dependent variable. Finally, you need to decide
how you’ll collect data on your dependent variable outcomes. You should
aim for reliable and valid measurements that minimize bias or error.
Some variables, like temperature, can be objectively measured with
scientific instruments. Others may need to be operationalized to turn them
into measurable observations.
How precisely you measure your dependent variable also affects the
kinds of statistical analysis you can use on your data. Experiments are always
context-dependent, and a good experimental design will take into account all
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of the unique considerations of your study system to produce information
that is both valid and relevant to your research question.
(https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/experimental-design/)
V o c a b u l a r y e x e r c i s e s
Ex. 1. Translate from English into Russian:
Causal relationships, to manipulate independent variables, to measure the effect, dependent variables, experimental design, a set of procedures,
to test a hypothesis, to define the variables, to make predictions, to list
the independent and dependent variables, possible extraneous and confounding variables, to put into a diagram, a testable hypothesis, experimental treatments, apply your experimental treatments, reliable and valid measurements,
to obtain results, scientific instruments, to minimize bias or error, to take into
account all the considerations, to produce information.
Ex. 2. Translate from Russian into English:
Планирование эксперимента, измерять зависимые переменные,
определенный исследовательский процесс, контролируемый эксперимент, влиять на достоверность, включать в эксперимент, ряд процедур,
собирать данные, объективно измеряемый, достоверный и актуальный,
описать эксперимент, изменять независимые переменные, тестировать
образцы, точно измерять, включать параметры, размер исследования.
Ex. 3 Match the words from the columns to make up word combinations:
To manipulate
a research question
To measure
observation
To decide
variable
Valid
design
Reliable
hypothesis
To obtain
analysis
Measurable
results
Independent
relationship
Experimental
research
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Ex. 4. Decide if the statements are true or false:
1) Experiments are used to predict causal relationships.
2) Dependent variables affect one or more independent variables.
3) It is necessary to define the main variables and make predictions
about how they are related if you need to make an experimental hypothesis.
4) The first step in your experimental design is writing a hypothesis.
5) Your manipulations with the independent variable can affect
the experiment’s external validity.
6) You cannot vary your independent variable.
7) Reliable and valid measurements can minimize bias or error.
8) All variables can be objectively measured with scientific instruments.
9) Precise measurements of your dependent variable affects the sta-
tistical analysis you can use on your data.
10) A good experimental design does not need to take into account
all of the considerations of your study system.
Ex. 5. Answer the following questions:
1) What do experiments study?
2) What can you do with independent variables?
3) What are independent variables?
4) What does a good experimental design require?
5) What should you begin with in an experimental process?
6) Why is it good to put the variables into a diagram?
7) What should a hypothesis address?
8) What must you be able to do in a controlled experiment?
9) What do experimental treatments mean?
10) Do you need to decide how you’ll collect data on your dependent
variable outcomes?
G r a m m a r r e v i e w
Complex object
Complex Object may be presented by The Objective-with-the Infinitive-Construction or by the Complex Object with Participle. Complex
Object contains a pronoun in the objective case or a noun in the general
case followed by an infinitive or participle. In this construction, a noun
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or a pronoun expresses a person or an object that performs an action or is
exposed to an action, and the infinitive or participle, in fact, the action:
The professor expects his assistant to finish his scientific work ahead
of time. – Профессор ожидает, что ассистент закончит научную ра-
боту до срока.
Sentences with a Complex Object are translated into Russian as
a complex sentence, in which the subject and predicate make up the main
sentence, and the complex object is an additional subordinate clause.
Complex Object is used after:
– The verbs to know (знать), to prove (оказаться, доказать), to believe (верить, полагать), to consider (считать, полагать), to expect
(ожидать), to think (думать), to suppose (предполагать) и т. д.
We know Nick to be an expert researcher. – Мы знаем, что Ник –
опытный исследователь.
– After the verbs expressing desire: to want (хотеть), to wish / to
desire(желать), would like (хотелось бы) etc. and are translated by a subordinate clause with the conjunction чтобы, and the infinitive is translated by
the predicate in the subjunctive mood:
I want you to rewrite this paragraph. – Я хочу, чтобы Вы переписали этот абзац.
– After the verb to ask with the preposition for (просить), to request
(просить, предлагать), to order (приказывать), to recommend (рекомендовать) и т. д.
The director recommended the laboratory to be aired every two
hours. – Директор рекомендовал, чтобы лабораторию проветривали
через каждые два часа.
– After the verbs of sense perception. Moreover, the infinitive after
such verbs is used without to, it is introduced into the subordinate clause by
conjunctions как, что. These are the verbs: to hear (слышать), to see
(видеть), to notice (замечать), to observe (наблюдать), to feel
(чувствовать) etc. In sentences with the verbs of sense perception, the infinitive is used to denote a completed action.
The teacher heard the student talk during a lecture. – Преподаватель слышал, как студент говорил во время лекции.
Complex Object with Participle. A complex object with a participle
is used mainly after verbs of passive physical perception, for example: to see
(видеть), to hear (слышать); to feel (чувствовать), to notice (замечать), to
watch (наблюдать):
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I saw him entering the house. – Я видел, как он заходил в дом («him
entering» is related to the verb «saw»).
There are four forms of the Infinitive (the perfect infinitive, the continuous infinitive, the perfect continuous infinitive, and the passive infinitive). Depending on the forms of the Infinitive a sentence is translated in different ways:
in the Present or in the Past tense; in the Active or Passive Voice.
The Participle Complex Object is similar to The Objective-withthe Infinitive-Construction, in which the participle is used instead of the infinitive. Unlike a Complex Object with an infinitive, a Participle Object is
used to emphasize how the action took place.
G r a m m a r e x e r c i s e s
Ex. 1. Translate the following sentences into Russian:
1) Our supervisor let us have a rest.
2) They wanted us to minimize the error.
3) They were asked to meet you at the station.
4) I know my colleagues to present our research.
5) We know Novosibirsk to be the centre of the scientific research.
6) I know the experiments need to be context dependent.
7) My research supervisor wanted me to measure the dependent
variable.
8) We saw the dependent variables affect one or more independent
variables.
9) We expected this report to be the best at the conference.
10) The delegation is reported to be leaving Kazan tonight at 9 a. m.
Ex. 2. Use the Complex Object with or without to:
1) The Professor made his students _____ learn the rule.
2) Let me ___ answer your question.
3) Lisa doesn’t want Pete ____ change the parameters.
4) Martha didn’t expect David ___ ask such a silly question.
5) They would like us ___ take part in the seminar.
6) Glasses make him ___ look older.
7) My colleague advised me not ____ tell anything about an error.
8) Having a computer enables you ___ calculate the data more easily.
9) Don’t let him ___ enter the lab.
10) I’ve never been to England but I’m likely ___ go there.
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Ex. 3. Open the brackets and use the Complex Object.
Example: He expected (they, start) at 5. – He expected them to
start at 5.
1) Do you want (they, do) the courses with us?
2) I’d like (the professor, look through) my report.
3) Do you want (I, show) you my calculations?
4) We expect (he, arrange) everything by the time we come.
5) I want (she, tell) me the news in brief.
6) He expected (the meeting, hold) in the Conference Hall.
7) I would like (they, fix) an appointment for me for Tuesday.
8) We want (she, introduce) us to the professor.
9) I don’t want (they, be late) for the seminar.
10) He expected (she, invite) to the dispute by Smith.
11) I don’t want (she, participate) in a discussion.
12) We considered (he, be) a talented scientist.
13) I don’t like (she, prevent) me from doing it.
14) I suspect (he, help) by her.
Ex. 4. Make up the sentences:
1) Her / to / the text / the teacher / wanted / translate / students.
2) Recommend / for my holidays / you / me / where / to go / would?
3) Her students / the lectures / doesn’t / the professor / miss / want / to.
4) Always / me / my supervisor / study / encourages / hard / to / at
the course.
5) Invited / for a few days / John’s friends / to / with them / her / stay.
Ex. 5. Combine the sentences using the Complex Object.
Example: I did not see him. He entered the laboratory. – I did not
see him enter the laboratory.
I saw him. He was entering the laboratory. – I saw him entering
the laboratory.
1) They did not notice us. We passed by.
2) He heard her. She was talking to the students.
3) He saw her. She filled in a table.
4) I felt the flask. It was getting hot.
5) She hasn’t heard us. We called again.
6) They haven’t seen the fire. It burnt in a lab.
7) I heard them. They were arguing.
8) She heard the voices. The students were discussing her lecture.
9) She felt some odour. It was spreading all over the lab.
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