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Файл:Conducting work on the maintenance of landscape architecture objects. Textbook
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base is selected. For paths used only in summer, you can make a sandy base. For
year-round use — gravel and sand. Roads and areas intended for vehicles, parking
lots are built on a solid concrete foundation, reinforced with reinforcement.
Coating materials
Concrete tile coverings are very common in gardens and parks. The slabs are
manufactured in factories and are a cheap coating material. The shape and size of the
tiles can be different: square, circle, hexagonal, trapezoidal, triangles, irregular
shapes. Ornaments can be applied to the slabs. They may also contain pebbles and
gravel, giving them texture.
Monolithic concrete coatings are used less frequently, usually in curved paths.
You can use concrete to imitate tiles. The coating can be given any color or texture.
The disadvantage of this coating is that it is labor intensive, as well as difficulties
during the repair process.
Natural stone coatings are the most decorative and attractive type of coating.
The stone is varied in texture, color, shape. Paving stones can also be laid in various
ways (fan, net, tied). The shape of the paving stones is close to a parallelepiped. If the
paving stones are laid as a mosaic, its shape is made cubic, 7–10 cm in size. Tiles of
irregular shape can be made of granite, shell rock, or sandstone. The seams between
them are filled with pebbles or sown with lawn grass and ground cover.
The platforms are paved with small cobblestones laid on a cement mortar.
Smaller stones are placed between large stones.
Brick coverings have been used since ancient times, but they are not as
resistant to wear and tear as modern coverings. In addition, brick coverings are very
expensive. Despite this, brick paths are quite common. Such paths are made on sandy
bases with bricks laid on the edge. You can use various patterns: mesh, wicker, etc. It
is also used in combination with other materials.
Wood coverings are very short-lived (round logs, boards, blocks, bars). In
small areas they are used as a wooden deck/terrace with benches.
Coatings made from special mixtures are modern type coatings using gravel,
cement, sand and stone. Mixtures can be gravel-cement, sand-gravel, or from stone
cuttings. Sand, gravel and other bulk materials are used as the base, the thickness of
the base is 10–12 cm. The base is usually made of large fractions (crushed stone,
stones) 3–4 cm thick, and on top of them a smaller layer up to 4–5 cm.
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Methods for laying and repairing paths
When laying paths, the following sequence of actions is observed. To begin
with, the entire road and path network and sites are laid out on the site in accordance
with the project, layout drawing using geodetic tools. All slopes, dimensions, and
radii of curvatures are checked. Then “troughs” are cut out in the ground for future
platforms and paths.
All changes in the terrain are leveled, the debris is removed, but can be used
for the foundation (if it is stones/bricks). The surface is compacted with rollers.
Before compaction, the soil is irrigated with water to a depth of 5–6 cm. After
preparing the base, work is carried out on laying the base and covering the paths.
Paths covered with concrete tiles can have an improved or simplified design.
The improved structure is very durable, consisting of a base, a layer of crushed stone
(about 5 cm), a layer of stone castings, a dry mixture of cement, sand and granite
castings or liquid cement mortar, as well as tiles. With a simplified design, the tiles
are laid on a 6–10 cm layer of sand. The pattern is determined by the designer.
Paths and areas covered with stone, brick, wood are fundamentally little
different from laying concrete tiles. The material for the base is sand or a cementsand mixture (thickness is approximately 10 cm). The seams are covered with sand or
a mixture, sometimes laid out with bricks. You can create different designs. Finished
coatings are aged for 3–4 days before use.
Paths coated with monolithic concrete are comfortable and have excellent
aesthetic properties. The main requirements for constructing such coatings are to
ensure clear contours using formwork, a crushed stone base, and leveling the layer
with a special trowel or spatula. After leveling, the surface is rolled with a roller with
two horizontal mesh drums. The pattern is applied after the moisture has evaporated,
but the concrete is still plastic. Sometimes colored aggregate is used (gravel, pressed
colored pebbles).
Paths coated with special mixtures. With this method, great importance is
attached to the formwork (supporting edges). You can make eyebrows by adding a
roller of soil. Its height should be 15 cm, no less, and can be increased depending on
the need. Sometimes, instead of an edge, a curb made of stone or concrete is installed.
The seams are filled with cement mortar. A layer of crushed stone is poured onto the
base, moistened with water (10 l/m2), and rolled with a roller to prevent the
movement of particles. The operation of the tracks begins in 3–5 days.
It is advisable to make paths with combined coatings from materials that
require the same base and installation method.
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Sports grounds. The choice of coating for them depends on the size and
purpose. Dry, well-ventilated places are allocated for such areas. To prevent the top
cover from generating dust, a water supply system is needed to water the surface of
the site. If a skating rink is poured on the site for the winter, it is necessary to lay the
pipes below the freezing point of the soil. Such sites usually consist of many layers,
drainage, watering water supply and lighting.
The construction of a simple sports ground includes several stages:
1) determination of dimensions;
2) foundation structure — trough with drainage and ring drainage;
3) an underlying layer of draining medium-grained materials or elasticmoisture-absorbing materials capable of transporting moisture through the drainage
system;
4) a layer of inert materials;
5) an insulating layer of elastic and moisture-absorbing materials;
6) top layer of the mixture;
7) equipment installation and marking.
To preserve all the properties of paths and platforms, proper care is necessary.
Let's consider what work is necessary to maintain the paths in good condition.
In winter, be sure to clear paths of snow and ice. For large track widths, this is
done using special equipment. They are also cleaned of household waste.
Spring path maintenance work involves closing soft-surface (crushed stone)
paths when the snow melts. After drying, the paths are opened. To speed up the
melting, snow is loosened on the roadsides and scattered on the lawn. The ice is
broken off, drains and storm drains are cleaned to drain melt water.
In summer, the paths are cleared of leaves and debris as necessary (if it is a park,
then at least 1–2 times a day). During the summer, the paths are systematically
watered; paths with soft surfaces are watered moderately, so as not to wash away, but
to knock down dust. Paved alleys are watered 1–2 times a day; the use of watering
machines is mandatory.
Weed control is carried out mechanically or chemically. The chemical method
is more effective. But it is practically not used in residential areas and private
gardens. When repairing curbs, stones are replaced using the original technology.
Routine repairs of paths are carried out if pavements with soft surfaces are
damaged by depressions and holes. Such places are loosened, leveled and covered
with crushed stone with a layer of 3–3.5 cm, which is rolled or compacted, and the
mixture used in the original coating is applied on top. It is leveled by hand. Every
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year, 1–2 cm of inert material is added and rolled with a roller. Tile coverings are
repaired by replacing tiles.
Major repairs are carried out when there is large, significant wear of the
original coating. The minimum period after which major repairs are prescribed is
10 years.
Major repairs consist of the following operations:
- hilling with a bulldozer;
- loosening the base to the full depth;
- surface leveling;
- curb repair;
- adding new crushed stone;
- laying the mixture or tiles.
3.6. STORMWATER DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
Storm water intake structures are needed in low places, at the ends of streets
with long slopes, at intersections and at pedestrian crossings, on long slopes, with flat
terrain in low places, inside blocks, parks, courtyards.
A storm inlet is a well on a sewer network, consisting of a removable grate, a
glass, and a bottom with a tray. Its functions are to drain rain and melt water. From
the storm inlet, rainwater flows into a closed drainage network.
A vertical partition is installed inside the rainwater inlet, which divides the
body into a water intake and settling chamber. The design also includes a removable
dirt collector in the bottom. The drainage pipe discharges water into the drain. This
device effectively retains large, medium and small dirt inclusions and prevents
clogging.
Wells located in the trays of the roadway are divided into wells with a
receiving grid in the plane of the roadway with holes in the vertical plane of the side
and both planes.
Storm water inlets with gratings in both planes have the best receiving
capacity. Storm water inlets have a rectangular shape, size 0.6 by 0.9 m, or round
with a diameter of 0.8 m.
Previously, storm inlets with a sedimentary part were often used, but now nonsedimentary ones are more often used.
The laying depth is at least 0.8 m. In heaving soils — not less than the average
freezing depth.
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Water enters the drain through a connecting pipe with a diameter of
200–300 mm; the length from the storm inlet to the collector inspection well is no
more than 40 m. The throughput of the gratings depends on their arrangement in the
street tray.
They can be placed in low areas, in which case they receive the entire volume
of wastewater; this method is applicable in cities with flat terrain.
Installation of gratings in areas with a longitudinal slope (long descent or
ascent. Several gratings are placed in series. The floor of this scheme is installed in
cities with rugged terrain. For flat terrain, choose the DM (small) grate; for rugged
terrain, choose DB (large).
3.7. CARRYING OUT THE PROJECT IN NATURE, WORK ORDER
During the design process, the construction grid provides convenient
conditions during the work. Buildings and structures under construction must be
located inside the main and additional figures.
Grid lines are placed as close as possible to the main axes of objects, as well as
parallel to them. Then linear measurements are taken.
The breakdown of the network begins with the outlining of the original
direction. The geodetic network available on the site is used. After this, polar
coordinates are determined to set out the original directions of the network. At
intersections, marks are fixed at a depth of 1 m below the soil freezing line.
The breakdown is carried out in several stages. To begin with, determine the
position of the axes and fix them on the ground. This is the basic breakdown. Then,
longitudinal and transverse axes are established from the main axes, and the levels of
design heights are determined. This is a detailed construction breakdown. Then the
technological axes of the equipment are broken down. The transfer of the project to
the site is carried out during any construction.
Layout work involves removing and securing on the land plot points, axes and
marks that determine the position of the object in connection with the project.
The transfer of the project into nature is carried out from the general to the
specific. The accuracy of the transfer depends primarily on the accuracy of the
measuring instruments and the correct construction of the original network. Layout
work is carried out in various ways; linear, rectangular and polar coordinate methods,
and corner notches are often used.
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Carrying out the project into nature involves fixing points on the ground that
determine the geometry of the structure. The position of the points can be determined
by plotting the design angle from the original side and plotting the design distance
from the original point.
Geodetic instruments of standard type are intended for making measurements.
Constructions with these devices may not be accurate enough.
If it is necessary to construct a design angle of increased accuracy, there is the
following method. The accuracy of field angle plots may depend on instrument
errors, measurement errors, and errors due to environmental conditions. Errors in the
position of points A and B do not affect the accuracy of deposition of the angle, but
cause displacements in the direction of BC and point C, which is taken into nature.
To construct the design length of the line, a distance is set aside from the
starting point in a given direction; its horizontal alignment must be equal to the
design distance. The horizontal layout is specified in the project; corrections for
comparison, terrain slope and temperature are introduced during the construction
process. But this makes it difficult to obtain high-precision distances.
It is necessary to use the reduction method. From the starting point A (on the
ground), set aside and fix the approximate value of the design distance /dd (point B').
This distance is measured with measuring instruments or precise rangefinders, taking
into account all corrections. Calculate the length of the segment /
change
.
The accuracy of the design distance /dd depends mainly on the accuracy of
linear measurements AB.
When carrying out the design distance directly into nature, corrections for
comparison, temperature, and slope of the terrain are introduced with signs opposite
to those taken into account when measuring lines.
For example, when setting out a project line, a device was used whose length at
the measurement temperature was less than the nominal length. Then the reflected
line will be shorter; it is necessary to add a correction (+). If you use the device to
measure a line, then the correction is entered with a (–) sign. And vice versa, if the
length is greater than the nominal one, when measuring a line, the correction will
have a + sign, and when it is deposited –.
When measuring on sloping terrain, the slope correction is entered with a – sign,
because the inclined distance is greater than the horizontal one. When plotting lines,
all dimensions are given to the horizon, so when plotting, the dimension on sloping
terrain will be shorter; you must enter it with a + sign.
They use steel and Invar measuring instruments, optical rangefinders and light
rangefinders to plot distances. All marks in the project are given from the level of a
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conditional, equal floor; accordingly, it is necessary to recalculate them into a system
in which the heights of the original benchmarks are given.
By leveling in the usual way, the actual elevation of the point taken out is
determined by comparing with the design one. If unacceptable discrepancies are
identified, perform it again. If it is necessary to transmit marks of points lying in a
vertical plane (walls), the horizon of the device is fixed on the vertical plane. The
corresponding excess is measured from this point in the required direction and the
mark of the point is noted.
To construct lines of design slopes, a level, theodolite and laser instruments are
used. When using a theodolite, it is installed at the starting point with the design
mark, and the height is measured. On the vertical circle, taking into account the
location of zero, set a reading in degrees equal to the design slope. The line of sight
of the theodolite will record the angle of inclination corresponding to the design one.
Having marked the height of the device on the pole, perform the same operations as
when using a level. Two milestones define the grade reference line. By eye, a sight 3
is inserted into this line, its base fixes the point of the design slope line.
3.8. STAIRS, RAMPS, SLOPES, RETAINING WALLS
Almost any territory has a slope of the earth's surface. For the convenience of
pedestrians, in this case, special structures are created: with a slope of up to 8 %,
ramps, with a greater slope of stairs. For very large slopes, overhead roads,
funiculars, etc. are created.
The staircase is an important part of the landscape. It fits well into the park
landscape and is combined with the mirror surface of the water. When designing
stairs, pedestrian traffic in two directions is taken into account. For convenience, long
staircases are made up of several parts, with rest areas arranged between them. The
placement of individual flights of stairs changes the breadth of the view and changes
the viewing angles of objects.
Depending on the purpose of the staircase, its design, size and shape change.
The main staircases are ceremonial, they are decorated with sculptures, flower beds,
vases, lamps, and sometimes fountains and cascades are also used. Secondary stairs
fit into the surrounding landscape; even trail-stairs or trails with separate steps are
used. In park stairs, a slope of 1 : 3 or more gentle is used.
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Stairs are created with a step height of 10–12 cm and a width of 38–40 cm,
especially for walking on vacation. The width of the stairs must be at least 0.7 m per
person, for movement in 2 directions at least 1.5 m.
For stairs with frequent use of strollers and bicycles, part of the stairs is
replaced with a ramp. If stairs become frequently icy in winter, handrails must be
provided.
The landings on the stairs also serve as observation platforms. Sometimes
additional platforms are made between the steps, for example, if it is necessary to
preserve valuable wood. It is better to create stairs from a hard, but not slippery
material, preferably stone (granite, etc.).
Between the steps of stairs that are not intended for heavy traffic, special
“pockets” are created between the steps, where trampling-resistant herbs and flowers
are planted.
If there is a slight difference in the terrain, you can create a staircase from tree
cuts. The disadvantage of this design is its fragility, and such stairs are slippery in wet
weather.
Ramps are used between multi-level platforms. Ramps should be 3–4 times
longer than the stairs at the same lifting height. Ramps are made of hard, non-slip
surfaces. Ramps can be made of concrete slabs, slabs interspersed with mosaics,
gravel and pebble, with strips of crushed stone, paving stones, piece slabs. The joints
between stones and slabs can be planted with grass. On gentle slopes, low and wide
steps are usually used, the so-called Italian ramp.
Retaining walls are used to strengthen slopes and restrain soil movements; in
addition, they have high decorative properties and create an interesting effect in the
landscape. Retaining walls clearly delimit different levels, unlike slopes, which create
a smooth transition.
With the help of retaining walls, they create accents among plantings, using
various materials, harmoniously fitting them into the landscape. Retaining walls were
widely used in both historical and modern parks.
Modern architects incorporate benches and stairs into retaining walls, use
fountains, springs and waterfalls, and combine them with green slopes and stone
slopes. The walls made of natural stone in combination with vegetation are especially
beautiful.
The greater the height of the retaining wall, the more pressure it experiences.
For retaining walls more than 1 m high, durable materials such as concrete, stone or
brick are used. For such walls, foundations are used, the depth of which is at least
0.8 m, and the width is 15–20 cm wider than the wall itself.
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Natural stone walls are created by laying stones and slabs on the foundation in
a checkerboard pattern, then filling the space between them with smaller stones.
To create higher and stronger retaining walls, cement-lime mortar is used and
stones are laid on it.
For decorative purposes, inclusions of large stones and boulders of unusual
shapes are used. Using reinforced concrete, surfaces are treated to give a decorative
appearance. To create a relief, special stencils are used, or material is sprayed. The
concrete surface can be covered with ceramics, natural stone tiles, etc. Small pockets
and niches are also left in the masonry, in which climbing plants, as well as hanging
or climbing plants, are planted.
In order to retain moisture for plants, a slight slope is created into the wall.
Bridges are used not only for functionality, but also to decorate the landscape.
Bridges look especially beautiful in combination with water. But it can also be used
without water. You can admire waterfalls, ponds or flowers from the bridge.
If there is a body of water, then the bridge is installed at the place where the
channel is the least wide. In the absence of a reservoir, the bridge is installed over
ravines, holes, or in areas that require allocation. Bridges over flower beds, spanned
over dry rivers made of stones, look good.
Bridges are divided into decorative and functional.
The bridge can not only be installed over a reservoir, but also go onto it. The
bridge design can be arched, straight, in the form of a deck, suspended, etc., with or
without railings.
The materials for the bridge are also different, including wood, metal, stone
and brick; the railings can be made using artistic forging. It is important that the
bridge matches the style of the park.
Bridges can also combine 2 structures, a staircase and a crossing. Such bridges
are relevant when there is elevation on the site.
For bridges that are regularly used, it is necessary to use materials that are nonslip and practical to use.
When installing a bridge over a reservoir, the banks must be strengthened. The
base of the bridge is made of durable materials that do not rot. The bridge can be
decorated with climbing plants, or hang vases of flowers on the railing.
Dry streams are created from stones or flowers; it is good to use plants
blooming with blue flowers to imitate water.
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3.9. SMALL ARCHITECTURAL FORMS,
THEIR CLASSIFICATION AND PURPOSE
Alpine gardens (rock gardens) are indispensable in landscape design. The
most common options are: rock garden and rock garden on a plane, rocky hill,
retaining wall, rock garden terrace, gravel garden.
There is the following difference between an Alpine garden and a rock garden:
for an alpine hill, most of the area is left for planting plants, while in a rock garden,
most of the area is occupied by stones, and a smaller part by plants.
If the alpine slide is raised, it can add texture to a garden on the plain. On the
plains it is better to arrange rockeries, and their size should be at least 1.5 × 2 m. The
height is 1–3 m.
Slides and rockeries look good against the background of the lawn. Coniferous
plants are often used in rock gardens; they increase the decorative and all-season
functionality of the slide. The slides also look good against the backdrop of shrub and
tree groups, preferably monochromatic.
Alpine garden terrace is a slide created on a slope. It is built by terracing the
area, creating a platform 0.3–2 m wide. Retaining walls are used to strengthen the
terraces.
For ease of maintenance of such a slide, stylized steps can be provided. It is
best to build such a slide on the eastern, south-eastern, south-western slope. Retaining
walls separate the terraces and emphasize the topography of the site. Under retaining
walls, a foundation of at least 0.4 m in height is required for construction.
An important element for creating a slide is stone. The stones must be rocky,
have a uniform texture, and be compatible with each other. Various stones are used:
limestone, granite, slate, sandstone, tuff, etc. Large stones create the color of the slide;
it is advisable to use stones weighing more than 20 kg. Rocks covered with moss work
well. Before installing a slide, a diagram of the slide structure must be made.
Of the annual flowers that are well suited for the garden: eschscholzia, verbena,
small-flowered viola, ageratum, alyssum, annual phlox, purslane, iberis. For shaded
areas of the hill, Japanese astilbe, bergenia, columbine, lungwort, hosta, and brunnera
are suitable.
Various dwarf species of mountain pines, juniper, thuja, barberry,
chaenomeles, cinquefoil, and spirea look good. After the plants take root, the ground
is covered with pebbles and crushed stone (decorative).
During drought, it is necessary to water the plants more often; in the fall,
remove leaves from the Alpen garden. Cover plants that need it for the winter. In
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