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Файл:Conducting work on the maintenance of landscape architecture objects. Textbook
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sanitary protection zones; for the construction of intercity communication routes,
streets, squares, parks, gardens, boulevards and other public places.
The production area is intended to accommodate industrial enterprises and
related facilities, complexes of scientific institutions with their pilot production
facilities, utility and warehouse facilities, external transport facilities, and non-urban
and suburban transport routes.
Landscape and recreational territory includes urban forests, forest parks, forest
protection zones, reservoirs, agricultural lands and other lands, which, together with
parks, gardens, squares and boulevards located in residential areas, form a system of
open spaces.
Within these territories, zones of various functional purposes are distinguished:
residential development, public centers, industrial, scientific and scientificproduction, municipal and warehouse, external transport, mass recreation, resort (in
cities and towns with medicinal resources), protected landscapes.
The organization of the territory of a rural settlement must be provided in
connection with the general functional organization of the territory of the economy,
as a rule, distinguishing residential and production areas. In historical cities, zones
(districts) of historical buildings should be distinguished.
Subject to compliance with sanitary, hygienic and other requirements for the
joint placement of objects of different functional purposes, the creation of
multifunctional zones is allowed.
In areas exposed to hazardous and catastrophic natural phenomena
(earthquakes, tsunamis, mudflows, floods, landslides), the zoning of settlements
should be provided taking into account reducing the degree of risk and ensuring
sustainable functioning. Parks, gardens, outdoor sports fields and other elements free
from development should be located in areas with the highest degree of risk.
In areas with complex engineering and geological conditions, it is necessary to
use sites for development that require lower costs for engineering preparation,
construction and operation of buildings and structures.
The planning structure of urban and rural settlements should be formed,
ensuring compact placement and interconnection of functional zones; rational zoning
of the territory in connection with the system of public centers, engineering and
transport infrastructure; efficient use of the territory depending on its urban planning
value; comprehensive consideration of architectural and urban planning traditions,
natural, climatic, landscape, national, everyday and other local features; protection of
the environment, historical and cultural monuments.
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In the city, natural areas are the most important element of the structure. They
perform many functions, and therefore it is necessary to take into account, protect and
cultivate them.
Typically, natural areas are assessed according to 4 criteria. These are
functional, defining functions of a given territory for city residents, places for
recreation, sports, etc.
Sanitary and hygienic criteria reveal the role of the city’s natural components
in improving the condition of the urban environment.
Aesthetic criteria can be called: the creation of a harmonious landscape, at the
same time having a style and a certain functional zoning.
Environmental criteria consist of assessing natural resources and establishing
the necessary means for the protection and improvement of these resources.
The natural complex of the city represents all areas of the city occupied by
plant and water bodies.
Specially protected natural areas are the basis of the city’s natural complex,
including nature reserves, national and natural parks, botanical gardens and natural
monuments, historical sites of landscape art, squares and boulevards.
Forest parks and public recreation areas are a continuation of city parks and
gardens, connected to them by boulevards and pedestrian roads.
Suburban zone is the area surrounding the city and is in connection with it.
This zone ensures the life of the city, has economic and health significance, provides
the city with water and other natural resources, and is a place for the extraction of
building materials.
The suburban zone includes the suburbs themselves, as well as satellite cities,
some manufacturing enterprises, railway stations and airports, water supply and
treatment facilities, warehouses, etc.
When suburban territory is used, part of it is used in agricultural production,
including nurseries, agro-industrial complexes and greenhouses. In suburban areas,
forests and water bodies must be protected, and forest parks and recreation areas are
created. Part of the suburban areas is allocated for dacha and garden partnerships,
sanatoriums and camps (health and children's).
The landscape organization of suburban areas determines the recreational
resource and recreational places for urban residents in the form of forest parks,
hydroparks, recreation areas, as well as national natural parks. Roads and highways
also play a major role in the landscape organization of suburban areas.
Forest parks are partially landscaped forest areas in suburban areas and
sometimes in the city area. Forest parks are formed from natural forests through
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gradual reconstruction and formation of the necessary landscape from existing areas.
Forest parks must be accessible to residents in terms of transport. A forest park belt is
usually formed around the city, which serves protective and recreational purposes.
The forest park system is protected by a special forest park service.
Forest parks can be divided into general and recreational forest parks, as well
as specialized ones (memorial, sports, resort). Forest parks, depending on the
territory, are divided into small (up to 100 hectares), medium (100–200 hectares), and
large (200–500 hectares). The number of visitors the forest park is designed for is
calculated based on the norm of 200 m2 per person. The optimal area of the forest
park is 500 hectares (for small towns — 300 hectares).
Hydroparks are objects of landscape architecture where bodies of water make
up at least 25 % of the territory. A necessary condition for creating a hydropark is the
creation of comfortable conditions for all age groups. Hydropark areas can be beach
areas, sports facilities and yacht clubs, harbors and boat stations, attractions, theater
venues, cafes.
Large areas should be served by public transport.
3.4. DRAINS, THEIR PURPOSE AND CLASSIFICATION
Drains are devices for artificially lowering groundwater levels. Drains are also
installed to protect against flooding. The drainage system can be made up of
individual lines or a drainage network.
The drainage network consists of dryers (most often these are pipes made of
asbestos and cement), collectors and special structures (pumping stations, inspection
wells, etc.). Drains are open. In this case, they represent open channels, trenches.
Open drainages are divided into linear and point. You can combine these two types.
Point type is used to collect water locally, mounted near drains and watering taps.
Dampers, settling tanks, and drainage systems are used.
Linear drainage is installed using ditches 500 mm wide and up to 700 mm
deep. It is necessary to control the slope when installing drainage; it should be equal
to 3° per 1 m.
Water should be quickly removed from the site during snow melting and heavy
rains. It is also necessary to achieve a reduction in groundwater levels.
Drainage is often required in clay soils. Surface open drainage is used in places
where water constantly accumulates. The water is discharged into a special reservoir
or into the sewer system.
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It is necessary to take into account the terrain of the site to create the most
effective system. It is necessary to maintain the distance between drains, the diameter
and slope of the ditches, the depth of the trenches for rapid water drainage, and locate
the receivers according to plan. The entire system is connected to the sewer. After
inspection, decorative grilles are installed.
During operation, it is necessary to clean the system. To drain groundwater and
infiltrated water, closed-type drainages are used. Such a system consists of pipelines
diverging throughout the area towards the drainage wells. This system allows us to
solve the problem of soil water balance. If the site has high soil moisture, then this
type of drainage is used. It helps prevent flooding in basements.
The depth of pipe laying is 600 mm for clay soils, 1 m for sandy soils. The
diameter of the main pipes is 100 mm, auxiliary 75 mm. Methods for laying drainage
pipes may vary.
A drainage well into which water flows can be used for irrigation during dry
periods. You can use special corrugated perforated pipes. If the soil is clayey, provide
filter material to protect the pipeline. For sandy soils, 200 mm thick bedding is made
from coarse crushed stone. After this, the pipes are wrapped in geotextiles. There are
ready-made pipes with geotextiles, ready for installation.
Before installing a closed drainage, an installation diagram is developed. In the
project, the amount of materials is calculated.
Dig a trench of the required depth. Geotextiles or 150 mm of sand are laid on
the bottom. After this, pipes are laid and covered with large crushed stone and
expanded clay. The slope of the pipes per 10 m should be about 7 cm. Special
adapters are used to connect the pipes. The trench is covered with soil.
The well serves to collect all wastewater. It is made of brick or reinforced
concrete rings. Sometimes large plastic containers are used. Pipes are connected to
the well, collecting water from the entire network of pipes. Water can be pumped out
using a process water pump.
Gallery drainage used in especially unfavorable areas, in landslide areas. The
drainage gallery is an underground structure for collecting and draining groundwater,
made in an open way. The drainage gallery can have a round, oval, trapezoidal shape,
and has a height of 1.5–1.7 m. A person can go down into such a gallery to inspect
and repair the structure.
Drainage galleries are constructed in deep drainage trenches to drain water
from one or more aquifers. Such drainage is usually isolated from surface water.
Water enters through filter material that sprinkles the outside of the gallery and
through special holes in the concrete.
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Inspection wells are installed every 150–200 m and at turns. Reinforced
concrete caps and locked gates are installed at the exits of the gallery.
Vertical drainage is a complex integrated system designed for drainage of
groundwater located close to the surface. Its constituent elements are drainage wells,
pumping equipment, a water supply network, as well as filter and automation
systems.
Vertical drainage is used in the construction of highways, tunnels, railway
tracks, dams, and in suburban construction. This system prevents walls from negative
impact.
The depth of the wells can be 20–50 m. Water is collected through filters
(length from 10 m) placed at the level of the aquifer. To effectively collect water,
filters with sand and gravel (from 100 mm) are used. Larger the filter diameter (from
30 cm), the more efficiently the system drains water.
There is automated drainage; when the water level rises seasonally,
submersible pumps pump out water automatically. When the groundwater level
drops, the pump will automatically turn off. There may also be additional wells that
provide water collection between the main wells.
The requirements for the construction of such wells are established by the Code
of Rules SP 100.13330.2016 “SNiP 2.06.03-85 Reclamation systems and structures”.
Updated version of SNiP 2.06.03-85 (approved by order of the Ministry of
Construction and Housing and Communal Services of the Russian Federation dated
December 16, 2016 No. 953/pr).
Reservoir drainage serves to protect the buried parts of the building. It is made
in the form of a sand and gravel layer, in the form of prisms and sloping towards
tubular drainage, as well as using geotextile membranes and geocomposites.
The design of reservoir drainage usually consists of one or two layers. Singlelayer drainage is made of crushed stone, two-layer drainage is made of crushed stone
and sand. The sand layer can be replaced with a geotextile membrane. Formative
drainage made of crushed stone must have a thickness of at least 30 cm. Two-layer
drainage consists of crushed stone (15 cm) and sand (10 cm).
Drainage pipes must be covered and not come into contact with the formations.
This will remove moisture from under the foundation. If the reservoir drainage is
carried out below the wall drainage system, the drainage occurs into the drainage
pipes of the wall drainage system using pumps.
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It is necessary to draw up a diagram of the location of drains, upper and lower
points, differences and directions of flow. There are also the following types of
drainage:
- expanding (neutralizes excess salt, required for arid zones, in areas with a
design project);
- drainage (for excessively moist soils);
- aeration (effective for clay soils, restoration projects, for draining the
basement).
Drainage systems are:
- systematic (proportional distribution of pipes on the site);
- selective (for individual areas);
- head (for water seeping from a hill, during flooding).
3.5. PATHS AND OTHER PLANAR ELEMENTS LANDSCAPING,
THEIR TYPES AND PURPOSE, MATERIALS, DESIGN
All sites in residential areas are divided into:
- playgrounds for preschoolers;
- playgrounds for younger schoolchildren;
- sports for high school students;
- quiet rest;
- economic;
- complex;
- for walking dogs;
- for parking.
Playgrounds for preschool children with high building density are combined
with playgrounds for adults and playgrounds for young children.
Isolation of playgrounds from driveways should be done using green spaces
of at least 3 m in width. Approximate standards for playground sizes for 1 child under
3 years of age are 4–5 m2, from 3–5 years old — 7–9 m2, from 6–12 years old —
9–10 m2.
Children's playgrounds can be located downwind of waste collection areas and
protected with plantings and decorative fences from the prevailing winds.
Sports grounds are designed at a size of 1 m2 per inhabitant. In the middle
zone, sports grounds are usually used by 8 % of youth and adults, pensioners 12 %
and children under 14 years old — 80 %. The percentage of the population of the
entire region simultaneously visiting the sites is considered to be 20 %.
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The distance to buildings should be at least 20–40 m. If the building density is
high, sports fields are grouped and placed in inter-yard spaces.
Areas for quiet relaxation usually have dimensions of 25–75 m2 (up to 150).
Sometimes they are placed scattered along alleys or the entrance to the house. The
coverings used on such sites are lawn, concrete slabs, paving stones and others.
There are utility areas for drying clothes, cleaning outerwear, and installing
waste bins. They are isolated from other areas, as well as from each other and from
the windows of buildings. The spaces of such sites must be well isolated. To fence
them, trellises with vines or tree and shrub plantings with dense crowns are used.
The areas for garbage disposals are made of concrete. The area for stopping the
garbage truck is provided with dimensions of 3.5 by 8 m. If the area blocks the
passage, then a space of 12 by 12 m is provided for turning another car.
Areas for outdoor games are surrounded by fences and covered with wood
chips. Plants are placed on embankments 20–30 cm above the surface of the sites;
benches, fences and walls are installed to protect the plants.
Sports fields are insulated with high walls made of mesh, on which climbing
vines can be planted. Planting places for vines are made outside. The width of
plantings around several sites is at least 10 m. Trees are placed no closer than 2 m
from the edge of the site.
Dog walking areas are designed at a rate of 25–30 animals per 1,000 residents.
The site dimensions are 200–600 m2. A rectangular area with a width of 12 to 20 m is
desirable; the path for the owner should be 1.5 m wide. Such areas are fenced with a
metal mesh with a height of 1.5 m and higher. Outside, a 3-meter strip of green space
with a dense structure is planted. The surface of the site can be made of sand, wood
chips, sawdust, soil-crushed stone covering. The site may have special equipment for
training dogs. The distance from such areas to the windows of buildings should be at
least 40 m.
Parking lots are isolated from the courtyard space with the help of green
spaces, high fences, and decorative walls made of stone and brick. The number and
size of sites are calculated based on the size and age of the population. The
population is calculated based on the number of apartments, then the number of
residents is determined by age group, then approximate standards for using the sites
per person are applied and the size of each site is calculated.
In the age structure of visitors, children under 3 years old make up 7–8 %,
children 3–6 years old 1.2–2 %, children from 7–15 years old 9–10 %. The workingage population from 18–60 years old is 56 %, over working age 22–26 %.
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The area of the group playground for toddlers should be 7.5 m2 per seat.
Playgrounds for preschool children may be located outside the site of general
preschool institutions.
Recreational areas meet the needs of urban residents. They can be located in a
park, square, neighborhood, streets, squares, etc. The areas in the park are intended
for individual, family, and group recreation. There are areas for quiet relaxation,
shows and entertainment, picnics, views, etc.
There may be unloading areas at the entrances; they provide ease of entry and
exit from the park. Their size is calculated taking into account the throughput
capacity of the alleys, the area is 1.5 m2 per visitor.
Recreational parks are for reading, board games, and just relaxing in nature.
Their sizes can range from 5–200 m2 depending on the number of people.
Lawns are intended for reading, relaxing in sun loungers or hammocks. Their
size ranges from 250 to 1,200 m2. Viewpoints serve for visitors to enjoy views of
nature. They can be in sizes from 10 to 150 m2. Venues for cultural and public events
are located on 200–500 m2. Dance floors can range in size from 150–500 m2 and are
used for holding dance parties and competitions.
Playgrounds for children range from 10 to 2,000 m2, the size depends on the
purpose, the younger the age of the children, the smaller the size of the playground,
and vice versa, the older the children and the more active the games they play
(including sports), the larger you need to size the site.
Sports and playgrounds can reach 7,000 m2. They can serve both older children
and adults.
In some countries, complexes are being created in residential areas. Here there
are sectors with playgrounds, physical education and sports grounds. In the sector,
calm landscapes have been created for a relaxing holiday. Playgrounds with sports
lawns are used for games. Children on playgrounds are supervised by teachers, while
parents play sports.
Recreation areas at industrial enterprises create conditions for relaxation and
increased productivity.
For workers with monotonous work, active recreation using music and color is
recommended. During nervous work, a quiet rest in nature is recommended. If it is
necessary to separate the sites from each other, they are separated by retaining walls,
slides, and vertical landscaping.
The accessibility radius of the site is taken into account the break time and
pauses during working hours. For a 3–5 minutes break up to 25 m, for 10–15 minutes
100 m, for 30 minutes 200 m.
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Recreation areas are located near industrial and domestic premises, on terraces
or roofs, in the direction of movement towards the dining rooms.
In industries that generate heat, recreational areas are shaded, canopies and
gazebos are planted with greenery, and water devices are used to improve the
microclimate in recreational areas.
Types of paths and their bases
Paths and platforms are important elements of the landscape. The road network
usually accounts for 10–20 % of the total area of the site.
The coverings of the paths are given great importance, as they are very
important in the composition. Coatings can be varied in color, materials, and shape.
The dimensions of the paths, their design, color and proportions must correspond to
the overall compositional design of the park or garden and be combined with
vegetation.
There are 6 types of tracks:
1) main routes. Their coverings are made of durable materials. The width of the
paths should be large enough (for example, in a park the width should be 30 m, and
the throughput should be 400–600 people/hour);
2) secondary paths, which are necessary to connect different corners of the
object. Coverings should be decorative;
3) additional tracks that are necessary to connect secondary elements and
transitions. Designs and coatings can be simplified;
4) bicycle roads; must have strong and stable structures;
5) roads for horse riding; must have special coatings;
6) utility roads and passages necessary for vehicles, mechanization, and
transportation of materials. They are made from durable and hard materials.
For large objects, all 6 types of paths can be used, for small areas — the first
3 types. Each type of road has its own width and length.
The width for one person is 0.75 m, no less. Bandwidth is calculated using the
formula:
S = I/P × 0.75,
where I is the intensity of visitor traffic along one alley, people/hour; P — capacity of
one lane (400–600 people/hour); 0.75 — width of one lane, m.
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Venues also have a certain meaning. Platforms are divided into several types:
- quiet rest areas;
- areas for active recreation (games, picnics, events);
- playgrounds;
- sports grounds;
- economic sites.
All of them have different types of coatings and design features depending on
the loads. Materials used in construction are divided into natural and artificial.
Natural materials — stone extracted from rocks. Stone materials for covering
paths and platforms are divided into several types.
Stone checker is a roughly chopped stone, used for paving paths with tiles and
for strengthening slopes.
Paving stones are crushed stones, close in shape to a parallelepiped, with
beveled sides; used for paths, platforms, slopes, curbs.
Side stones are granite bars reaching a length of 70–100 cm; used to connect
paths or areas with a lawn.
Stone tiles — bars, the thickness of which is approximately 5–15 cm; used as a
coating.
Rubble stone is pieces of rock up to 40–50 cm long, weighing 10–20 kg. Used
for laying retaining walls, rockeries, and can be processed into tiles.
Boulder stone is a sedimentary rock, the size of the boulders is 10–30 cm or
more. Used for rockeries, lawns, strengthening ponds, slopes.
Pebbles and gravel are used for paths. Sand is used in road construction.
Crushed stone is used in road construction.
Artificial materials — waste from industrial enterprises or specially
manufactured products. Let's look at what types of waste there are.
Broken brick (crushed stone) is rejected broken brick, waste from brick
factories. Red fired bricks are most often used.
There are following types of bricks:
- clinker, high-strength, for road surfaces;
- building brick, less durable, suitable for supporting walls, paths;
- tiles — in ground form they are used for sports fields and coverings.
Binders are used to make inert materials in mixtures adhere to particles and
transform them into coatings.
The path consists of the following elements: depressions in the ground; base
consisting of a sand layer or gravel-crushed stone cushion. Both layers are designed
to reduce soil stress and drainage. Depending on the function of the track, the type of
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