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Файл:About Music at the Lessons of English. Хрестоматия по чтению на английском языке для студентов очного и заочного отделений специальностей 070100 «Музы.pdf
12 violas
10 violoncellos
10 double basses
Woodwinds, about 15: 3 flutes, 1 piccolo
3 oboes, 1 English horn
3 clarinets
3 bassoons
1 double bassoon
Brass, 11: 4 horns
3 trumpets
3 trombones
1 tuba
Percussion, 5: 2 kettle drums players
3 men for bass and side drum, glockenspiel, ce-
lesta, xylophone, triangle, cymbals, tambou-
rine, etc.
It will be noticed that there are about 34 violins which are divided into
two groups, first and second. Each functions as a unit and plays a separate part.
In the woodwind section one of the players of the principal instrument generally
doubles on the related one. The third flutist, for example, also plays the piccolo.
Saxophones are added when called for in the score. Certain works call for a lar-
ger brass section with additional horns and an extra trumpet. Included in the en-
semble are also two harps and, for certain contemporary scores, a piano.
The instruments are arranged as to secure effective blending and contrast.
The softer ones are placed in front, the louder sit further back.
The ensemble is directed by the conductor, who beats time and indicates
the entrances of the various instruments, the shadings in the volume of tune, the
principal and subordinate lines, and a host of related details that serve to make
clear the structure of the work. It is the conductor's task to bring the ensemble to
life, to impose upon it a unifying conception, and to mold the group into a per-
fectly coordinated body.
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The conductor has before him the score of the work. This consists of from
a few to as many as twenty-five or more lines, each representing an instrumental
part. All the staves together comprise a single composite line. What is going on
at any moment in the orchestra is indicated at any given point straight down the
page.
The instruments in the orchestra are grouped in families: the woodwinds,
the brass, percussion, and strings.
Notes:
1. at smb’s disposal – в чьем-либо распоряжении;
2. to direct – руководить, управлять кем-либо;
3. thirty odd – тридцать с лишним;
4. principle and subordinate lines – главная и побочная партии;
5. to mold the group – создавать (формировать) оркестр.
THE STRING SECTION
The string section of the orchestra includes four instruments – violin, vi-
ola, violoncello, and double bass. These correspond roughly to soprano, alto,
tenor, and bass.
The violin was brought to its present form by the brilliant school of in-
strument makers that flourished in Italy from around 1600 to 1750. Most famous
among them were the Amati and Guarneri families; in those dynasties the se-
crets of the craft were transmitted from father to son, and by the master builder
of them all, Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737).
The violin is universally admired for its singing tone, which brings it of
all instruments closest to the human voice. Pre-eminent in lyric melody, it is ca-
pable too of brilliance and dramatic effect. It has a wide range, achieves subtle
shadings from soft to loud, commands the outmost rhythmic precision, and is
endowed with great agility in rapid passages.
The viola is somewhat larger than the violin. Its strings are longer,
thicker, and heavier; it is lower in range. The tone is husky in the low register,
somber and eloquent in the high. The viola is an effective melody instrument,
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particularly for themes of a mournful or passionate nature. It serves as a foil for
the more brilliant violin by playing a secondary melody, fills in the harmony, or
doubles (reinforces by duplication) the other parts.
The violoncello is notable for its lyric quality which takes on a dark reso-
nance in the low register. Composers value highly its expressive tone. In the or-
chestra the cellos carry melody, enrich the sonority with their full-throated song-
fulness accentuate rhythm, and together with the double basses supply the har-
monic foundation for the string choir.
The double bass, known also as contrabass or bass viola is the lowest in
range of the string group. It is about six feet high and its player either stands up
or sits on a stool. Its deep indistinct tones come into focus when they are dupli-
cated an octave higher, usually by the cello.
When this is done, double-bass tone assumes great carrying power and
furnishes basic support for the entire orchestra.
In these instruments the strings are set vibrating by the action of the bow.
The player stops the string by pressing down a finger of his left hand at a par-
ticular point, thereby changing the length of that portion of the string which is
free to vibrate, and with it the rate of vibration and the pitch.
The string instruments are pre-eminent in playing legato (smooth and
connected), though they are capable too of the opposite quality of tone, staccato
(short and detached). A special effect, pizzicato ("plucked") is executed by the
performer's plucking the string with his finger instead of playing with the bow,
thereby producing a guitar-like tone. Vibrato refers to the throbbing tone which
the violinist achieves by moving his finger slightly away from and back to the
resonance. In glissando the player moves his hand rapidly along the string,
sounding all the pitches of the scale. Tremolo, the rapid repetition of tone
through a quick up-and-down movement of the bow, is associated in the popular
mind with suspense and excitement. The less important is the trill, a rapid altera-
tion between a tone and its neighbour, giving a birdlike effect. Double-stopping
involves playing on two strings simultaneously. It is possible too to sound three
or four notes together. Thereby the violin, essentially a melody instrument, be-
comes capable of harmony. The mute is a three-pronged clamp which is slipped
onto the bridge of the instrument to muffle the tone. Harmonics are flutelike
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crystalline tones in the very high register, produced by lightly touching the
string at certain points instead of stopping it in the usual way.
The string section is the backbone of the orchestral ensemble. Its versatil-
ity and general usefulness have earned it the title of "the heart of the orchestra".
The violin, viola and cello also figure prominently as solo instruments, and in
chamber music, in duets, trios, quartets, quintets, and the like.
Notes:
1. to be notable for its timbre – быть известным (примечательным) за
счет ее тембра;
2. the heart of the orchestra – зд. сердце оркестра;
3. the backbone of the ensemble – суть (основа) ансамбля;
4. a rapid alteration – быстрая перестройка (изменение).
THE WOODWIND SECTION
The woodwind section of the orchestra consists of four principal instru-
ments – flute, oboe, clarinet, and bassoon. Each of these is supplemented by at
least one instrument of the same family; the flute by the piccolo, the oboe by the
English horn, the clarinet by the bass clarinet, and the bassoon by the contrabas-
soon. Saxophones too are included in this group, although made of metal. Be-
sides being prominent in the orchestra, the woodwinds possess a solo literature
and are widely used in chamber music.
The flute is the coloratura soprano of the woodwind choir. It possesses
an unmistakable timbre ranging from the poetic to the brilliant. Its tone is cool
and velvety in the expressive low register, and smooth in the middle. In the
upper part of the range the timbre is bright, bird-like, and stands out against the
orchestral mass. The present-day flute, made of a silver alloy rather than wood,
is a cylindrical tube stopped at the upper end and held horizontally, the player
blowing across a mouth hole out in the side of the pipe. The flute is much
prized as a melody instrument and is most agile in playing repeated notes,
scales, and trills.
The piccolo (from the Italian flauto piccolo, "little flute") has a piercing
tone. In its upper register it takes on a shrillness that is easily heard even when
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the orchestra is playing full blast. For this reason the instrument contributes to
many an orchestral climax. On the other hand, composers are coming more and
more to make use of the limpid singing quality of its lower register.
The oboe is made of wood. The double reed in the mouthpiece consists of
two slips of cane so shaped as to leave between them an extremely small pas-
sage for air. Because of this compression, the tone is focused and intense in all
registers. Oboe timbre is generally described as plaintive, nasal, reedy. The in-
strument is associated with pastoral effects and with nostalgic melodies. The
pitch of the oboe, once correctly established, is not readily subject to change, for
which reason it is chosen to sound the A for the other instruments when the
orchestra tunes up.
The English horn is in the nature of an alto oboe. Its wooden tube is
wider and longer than that of the parent instrument and ends in a pear-shaped
bell. The instrument would be well named were it not for the fact that it is nei-
ther English nor a horn. Its expressive, gently poignant tone made it a favourite
with the nineteenth-century romantics.
The clarinet has a single reed, a small elastic piece of cane fastened
against its mouthpiece. The instrument possesses a beautiful liquid tone, clear
and powerful in the high register, relaxed in the middle, cool and almost spectral
in the low. It has a remarkably wide range from low to high and from soft to
loud. The clarinet is a favourite instrument when it comes to playing melody.
Almost as agile as the flute, it has an easy command of rapid scales, trills, and
repeated notes. The bass clarinet's range is one octave lower. Its rich singing
tone, its flexibility and wide dynamic range make it an invaluable member of the
orchestral community.
The bassoon belongs to the double-reed family. Its tone is weighty and
thick in the low register, dry and sonorous in the middle, reedy and intense in
the upper. It is one of the most flexible and useful of the bass instruments. Ca-
pable of a hollow-sounding staccato and wide leap that create a humorous ef-
fect, it had been named "the clown of the orchestra". The designation is unfortu-
nate, as it obscures the bassoon's highly expressive character. The double bas-
soon, known also as contrabassoon, produces the lowest tone in the orchestra. Its
tube, over sixteen feet in length, is folded four around to make it less unwieldy.
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Its function in the woodwind section may be compared to that of the double bass
among the strings, in that it supplies a foundation for the harmony. In recent
times the double bassoon has been much used for special effects and colours.
The saxophone is of fairly recent origin, having been invented by Adol-
phe Sax of Brussels in 1840. It was created by combining the features of several
other instruments – the single reed of the clarinet, the conical tube of the oboe,
and the metal body of the brass instruments. The saxophone blends well with ei-
ther woodwinds or brass. In the 1920's it became the characteristic instrument of
the jazz band. French composers have been partial to it from the first; but, al-
though it figures prominently in a number of important modern scores, it has not
yet established itself as a permanent member of the orchestra.
The woodwinds are a less homogeneous group than the string section.
They are not necessarily made of wood; and they represent several methods of
setting up vibration: by blowing across a mouth hole (flute family); by means of
a single reed (clarinet and saxophone families); by means of a double reed (oboe
and bassoon families). They do, however, have features in common; first, the
holes in the side of the pipe; and second, their timbres, which are such that com-
posers think of them and write for them as a group.
Notes:
1. made of silver alloy – сделанный из серебряного сплава;
2. plaintive nasal reedy timbre – печальный гнусавый пронзительный
тембр;
3. a pear-shaped bell – раструб грушевидной формы;
4. “the clown of the orchestra” – «клоун оркестра».
THE BRASS SECTION
The brass section is the "heavy artillery" of the orchestra. Its four mem-
bers – trumpet, horn, trombone, and tuba – are indispensable for melody, for
sustaining harmony, for rhythmic accent, for the weight of their massed tone,
and for the flamelike sonority they contribute to climaxes. These instruments
have a cap-shaped mouthpiece. The column of air within the tube is set vibrating
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by the tightly stretched lips of the player, which act as a kind of double reed. To
go from one pitch to another requires not only mechanical means such as a slide
or valves, but also variation in the pressure of the lips and breath, which de-
mands great muscular control. Fatigue of lip muscles will cause even an expert
player to go off pitch.
Although the brass instruments are not as agile as either the woodwinds or
strings, succeeding generations of players have learned to handle them with ever
greater virtuosity. Besides playing an important role in the orchestra, the mem-
bers of the brass choir have come to figure prominently in twentieth-century
chamber music and in the jazz band.
The trumpet, soprano of the brass choir, possesses a firm, brilliant timbre
that lends radiance to the orchestral mass. It is associated with martial pomp and
vigour. Played softly, the instrument commands a lovely round tone. The muted
trumpet is much used; the mute, a pear-shaped device of metal or cardboard, is
inserted in the bell. When the muted tone is forced, a harsh snarling sound re-
sults that is not soon forgotten. Jazz trumpet players have experimented with
various kinds of mutes, and these are gradually finding their way into the
orchestra.
The horn, known also as French horn, is a romantic instrument. Descend-
ing from the hunting horn, the instrument was a favourite with nineteenth-
century composers, who identified its sound with nature. Its golden resonance
lends itself to a variety of uses: it can be mysteriously remote in soft passages,
and nobly sonorous in loud. The timbre of the horn blends equally well with
woodwinds, brass, and strings, for which reason it serves as the connecting link
among them. Although capable of considerable agility, the horn is at its best in
sustained utterance. The muted horn has a poetic faraway sounding; if the muted
tone is forced, however, the result is an ominous rasping quality.
The trombone – the word in Italian means "large trumpet" – has a grand
sonorousness that combines the brilliance of the trumpet with the majesty of the
horn. In place of valves it has a movable U-shaped slide that alters the length of
the vibrating air column in the tube. Composers consistently avail themselves
of its orotund tone to gain effects of nobility.
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The tuba is the bass of the brass choir. Like the string bass and contra-
bassoon, it furnishes the foundation for the harmonic fabric. It is surprisingly ag-
ile for so unwieldy an instrument. To play it requires good teeth and plenty of
wind. The tuba adds body to the orchestral tone, and a dark resonance ranging
from velvety softness to a growl.
Mention should be made, too, of the brass instruments used in military
and outdoor bands. Most important of these is the cornet, which was developed
early in the nineteenth century from the post-horn. The cornet has a shorter body
than the trumpet and possesses greater agility; its tone is rounder but less bril-
liant. Because of the comparative ease with which it is played, it has become the
mainstay of brass bands and small orchestras of the music-hall type. The bugle,
originally a hunter's horn, has a powerful tone that carries in the open air. As it is
not equipped with valves, it is able to sound only certain tones of the scale.
Notes:
1. “heavy artillery” – «тяжелая артиллерия»;
2. a cup-shaped mouthpiece – мундштук в форме чашечки;
3. a harsh snarling sound – резкий рычащий звук;
4. to lend radiance – придавать блеск, великолепие;
5. to gain effect of nobility – получать (достигать) благозвучного
эффекта;
6. an orotund tone – полнозвучный тон.
THE PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS
The percussion section comprises a variety of instruments that are made
to sound by striking or shaking. Certain ones consist of an elastic material such
as metal or wood. In others, such as the drums, vibration is set up by striking a
stretched skin.
The percussion section of the orchestra is sometimes referred to as "the
battery". Its members accentuate the rhythm, add body to the sound, generate
excitement in climatic moments, and inject splashes of colour into the orchestral
timbre. Like seasoning in food, they are most effective when used sparingly.
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The percussion instruments fall into two categories, those of definite and
those of indefinite pitch. In the former class are the kettledrums, or timpani,
which are used in sets of two or three.
The kettledrum is a hemispheric copper shell across which is stretched a
"head" of calfskin held in place by a metal ring. Adjustable screws or a pedal
mechanism enable the player to change the tension of the calfskin head and with
it the pitch. The instrument is played with two padded sticks. Its dynamic range
extends from a mysterious rumble to a thunderous roll. The muffled drum fre-
quently figures in passages that seek to evoke an atmosphere of mystery or
mourning.
The glockenspiel (German for "a set of bells)" consists of a series of
horizontal steel plates of various sizes that are struck with two hammers and
produce a bright metallic sound.
The celesta, which in appearance resembles a miniature upright piano, is
a kind of glockenspiel that is operated by a keyboard: the steel plates are struck
by small hammers and produce an ethereal sound.
The xylophone consists of blocks of wood which produce a dry, crisp
timbre when struck. Expert xylophone players attain dazzling speed and accu-
racy.
The marimba, a xylophone of African and South American origin, is as-
sociated with exotic dance music.
Chimes consist of a set of metal tubes of various lengths suspended from
a frame and struck with a hammer. They have a broad dynamic range, from a
metallic tinkle to a sonorous clang, and are frequently called upon to simulate
church bells.
Among the percussion instruments of indefinite pitch are the bass drum,
the side drum, also known as snare drum, tambourine and castanets, the triangle,
cymbals, and gong.
Notes:
1. “the battery” – зд. «военная батарея»;
2. to inject splashes – зд. создавать шум;
3. a copper shell – медный котел;
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4. calfskin “head” – мембрана из телячьей кожи (часть музыкального
ударного инструмента – литавры);
5. to change the tension of calfskin head – менять (перестраивать) литав-
ры путем изменения натяжения мембраны;
6. padded sticks – зд. палки, подбитые тканью: войлоком, фетром, син-
тепоном (2 палки с головками различной величины, формы, фактуры
и степени твердости, которые использует музыкант во время игры на
литаврах; выбор палок зависит от исполнения музыки).
OTHER INSTRUMENTS
The harp is one of the oldest of musical instruments. It appears in its ear-
liest form on Babylonian inscriptions of over four thousand years ago. It was the
traditional instrument of the bards of ancient Britain and Ireland, and became the
national emblem of the latter country. Its strings are played by plucking and
produce a crystalline tone that blends well with the orchestral timbres.
Chords on the harp are frequently played in broken form; that is, the tones
are sounded one after another instead of simultaneously. From this circumstance
comes the term arpeggio, which means a broken chord (arpa is the Italian for
"harp").
Arpeggios occur in a variety of forms on many instruments. By breaking
up the chord instead of sounding it in block formation, composers are able to ex-
tend a harmony over a period of time and to arrange it in diverse rhythmic fig-
ures.
The piano, a most popular instrument, is widely used in the home as well
as on the concert stage. Whereas the violinist or clarinetist needs someone to ac-
company him, the pianist is able to play both melody and harmony. This self-
sufficiency makes the piano an extremely useful instrument. It is indispensable
for accompanying and in small instrumental ensembles, and is of great assis-
tance to musicians in the study of operatic and orchestral scores.
The full name of the instrument is pianoforte, the Italian for "soft-loud",
which indicates its wide dynamic range and its capacity for nuance. Its strings
are struck with little hammers controlled by a keyboard mechanism. The piano
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