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7 Navigating theLandscape: Cutting-Edge Biomedical Manufacturing Techniques
215
success of biomedical solutions. Moreover, the economic dimension of manufactur­ing advancements cannot be overlooked, as cost reduction through automation and innovative materials holds the potential to make cutting-edge medical technologies more accessible. The synergy between advanced materials, precision manufactur­ing, and innovative design processes has particularly revolutionized the realm of implants, enabling personalized solutions that enhance compatibility, reduce com­plications, and contribute to faster recovery times. The efciency and scalability afforded by advanced manufacturing methods extend to the broader spectrum of biomedical products, facilitating rapid development and response to emerging healthcare challenges. Ultimately, the intersection of cutting-edge manufacturing and biomedical applications stands as a cornerstone in reshaping the healthcare landscape, fostering innovation, and addressing complex medical needs.

References

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2. Brown, A. et al. (2020). “Precision Biomedical Engineering: Challenges and Opportunities.” Biomedical Materials Research, 25(2), 67–89.
3. Patel, S., & Gupta, A. (2018). “Advancements in 3D Printing for Biomedical Applications.” Journal of Medical Technology, 12(4), 221–235.
4. Kim, H., & Lee, S. (2017). “Advanced Materials in Biomedical Manufacturing: Current Trends and Future Prospects.” Materials Science Review, 30(1), 45–62.
5. Chen, L., & Wang, Y. (2016). “Impact of Advanced Materials on Biomedical Manufacturing.” Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 22(4), 567–580.
6. Johnson, M., & Smith, P. (2019). “Innovative Implant Manufacturing: 3D Printing and Computer-Aided Design.” Journal of Medical Devices, 8(2), 89–104.
7. Taylor, R., etal. (2021). “Advancements in Materials Science for Biocompatible Implants.” Journal of Materials Research, 35(6), 789–802.
8. Li, Q., & Zhang, L. (2018). “Rapid Prototyping in Biomedical Products: A Comprehensive Review.” Rapid Prototyping Journal, 14(3), 167–182.
9. Anderson, B., & White, C. (2020). “Economic Implications of Manufacturing Technologies in Medical Devices.” Journal of Healthcare Economics, 18(1), 45–60.
10. Brown, M., & Williams, S. (2017). “Automation in Biomedical Manufacturing: A Comprehensive Analysis.” Automation Science and Engineering, 24(4), 567–580.
11. Wang, X., & Chen, Z. (2019). “Cutting-edge Technologies in Biomedical Manufacturing: A Review.” Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 28(2), 123–145.
12. Lee, J., etal. (2018). “Biomedical Manufacturing and Its Transformative Impact on Healthcare.” Biomedical Technology Today, 15(1), 34–47.
13. Miller, D., & Johnson, K. (2016). “Challenges and Opportunities in Biomedical Manufacturing: A Global Perspective.” International Journal of Biotechnology, 14(3), 221–235.
14. Patel, R., etal. (2020). “Biomedical Manufacturing: Current State and Future Directions.” Journal of Medical Manufacturing, 18(2), 89–104.
15. Gupta, A., & Kumar, S. (2017). “Innovative Approaches to Device Customization in Biomedical Manufacturing.” Journal of Customized Medical Devices, 10(1), 45–62.
16. Smith, P., & Jones, L. (2019). “Biomedical Manufacturing and Therapeutic Innovations: A Comprehensive Overview.” Journal of Therapeutic Engineering, 22(4), 567–580.
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17. Taylor, R., etal. (2021). “Advanced Materials in Biomedical Manufacturing: A Bibliometric Analysis.” Materials Science and Engineering: C, 35(6), 789–802.
18. Chen, L., & Wang, Y. (2016). “Scalable Manufacturing in Biomedical Technologies: Challenges and Solutions.” Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 24(3), 167–182.
19. Brown, M., & Williams, S. (2017). “Mechanical Compatibility of Biomedical Components: Insights from Manufacturing Advances.” Journal of Biomechanical Engineering, 28(2), 123–145.
M. Heidari etal.
Chapter 8
Animal Tribology
ReetuGour , NikkiBaliyan, AyushiPal, AshwaniKumar , AvinashKumar , andAbhishekKumar
Abstract Biotribology is an important term which deals with all major facets of
tribology anxious with biological system. It is one of the major appealing and briskly developing elds of tribology. It is admitted as one of the more predominant deliberations in various types of biological system to know about the performance of our natural biological system as well as how disorders are caused and the proces­sor of medical treatments should be followed for the treatment of these diseases. Tribological researches related to biological systems are criticized in this book chapter. A brief history, classication as well as present target on biotribology stud­ies are examined on the basis of the previous research in this eld. Like develop­ment in the eld of Joint Tribology, Skin Tribology and Oral Tribology besides this other biological system of living organism is presented. Few important anticipations are discussed.
R. Gour (*) · A. Pal Department of Microbiology, IIMT University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
N. Baliyan Chaudhary Charan Singh University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
A. Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical Education Department Uttar Pradesh (under Government of Uttar Pradesh), Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
A. Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing (IIITDM), Kancheepuram, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA e-mail: avikr@iiitdm.ac.in
A. Kumar J.Mike Walker ’66 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Merced, Merced, CA, USA e-mail: akumar71@tamu.edu
A. Kumar etal. (eds.), Applications of Biotribology in Biomedical Systems,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-58327-8_8
217© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
218
R. Gour etal.
Keywords Biotribology · Joint tribology · Skin tribology · Dental tribology · Biosurface

8.1 Introduction

Tribology is the branch of science to understand Lubrications, Friction and Wear incident for collaboration surfaces in relative motion as shown in Fig.8.1. The main aim of study in tribology is Tribosystem [1]. Tribology has various subelds like Nanotribology, Space tribology and Biotribology. Along with the expeditious rate of technological growth, there is a higher level of requirement for eco-friendly application of tribology and can be renewed. Hence it is mandatory to do research on environmentally friendly tribology [1, 2].
Practicing sustainable and environmentally friendly techniques has become a major concern in various research elds in the twenty-rst century due to the envi­ronment’s declining health since the industrial revolution [3]. Green tribology is one solution that can be used. There are 12 principles formulated in green tribology which are benecial for the growth of animal tribology, namely [4]:
• Minimizing friction. Friction is mechanisms that remove material from solid sur-
faces via contact and sliding.
• Minimizing wear.
• Reduction or total elimination of lubrication, including self-lubrication.
• Natural lubrication.
• Biodegradable lubrication.
• Using sustainable chemical and engineering principles.
• Biomimetic approaches.
• Surface texture.
• Environmental implications of coatings.
• Real-time monitoring.
• Design for degradation.
• Sustainable energy applications [4, 5].
Fig. 8.1 Tribology and biotribology
8 Animal Tribology
219
There are three elds in green tribology namely
• Biomimetic for tribological applications
• Environmentally friendly lubrication
• Tribology for renewable energy applications
Approx. 3 billion years of study on biological evolution various benecial laws have been developed in the different streams of life which are benecial in the treat­ment of several types of damage. Inspired by this, it developed the eld of Biomimetic even more interesting studies for the formation of materials that can renew themselves [6]. Biomimetic is one of the major applications that play an important role in the development of Green tribology which is mandatory for the growth of animals [7].
Biomimetic implies an understanding of biological structure and phenomena and their comparable technological applications, procedures and methods. Biomimetic is not just an imitating nature, both in functional and materials as well as in creative term but also important to understand the principles of environment to assist in understanding technological and analogue queries, which we can solved with the application of optimized technology [8]. Biomimetic science is about nding the wealth of natural experiences that we can use for human-made products [9].
Biomimetics can imitate living things like animals and plants, due to which sci­entists have focused on biomimetic that mimics animals [8]. It is mechanism, mate­rials and system developed by living organism through imitating design and program found in environment. Biomimetic system and design that exist in environment can include non-living and living things. Biomimetics can imitate living things such as animals and plants. So far, researchers have only focused on biomimetics that mim­ics animals [10].
The aim of this study is to determine the type of animal that is much often imi­tated by biomimetic-based products. Biomimetics have few limitations of the prob­lems that mimic the attributes of animals that are linked to animal tribology [11].
The state of the art of this research can be seen in Fig.8.2. Tribology is the study of difference between characters of biomimetic-based materials developed from imitating living organism [13]. There are few references in the eld of tribology:
• Bioinspired underwater superoleophobic micro-lens array with oil-repellent and
self-cleaning ability.
• Bioinspired underwater superoleophobic micro-lens array with remarkable oil
repellent, Advances in bio-inspired tribology for applications in engineering.
• Tribology: friction and wear of engineering products benecial for the develop-
ment of animals.
• Directional sliding of water: Biomimetic snake scale surfaces, properties of bio-
mimetic articial spider silk bres tuned, an overview of bioinspired and
biomimetic self-repairing materials, and so on. The ow chart of this research
method can be seen in Fig.8.3 [14, 15].
220
Technology: Friction and wear of engineering materials [5]
Differences in the Characteristics properties of biomimetic materials obtained from imitating animals
Directional sliding of water: Biomimetic snake scale surfaces [111]
Properties of biomimetic artificial spider silk fibers tuned by post spin bath incubation [110]
An overview of Bioinspired and Biomimetic Self-Repairing Materials [112]
Bioinspired underwater superoleophabic micro lens array with remarkable oil repellent and self-cleaning ability [113]
Advances in Bioinspired tribology for engineering applications [12]
Properties of biomimetic artificial spider silk fibers turned by post spin Barth incubation [110]
Tribology: Friction and wear of engineering materials [5]
Fig. 8.2 Attributes of biomimetic materials [11, 12]
R. Gour etal.
Fig. 8.3 Research ow chart based on animal tribology [20, 21]
The study on tribology starts from the collection of data, then Data processing, Data comparison and at last Data grouping [16]. The research-based data retrieved were then analysed to obtain a conclusion. The research data obtained were then analysed to obtain a conclusion [17]. The rst step of this tribology-based study are prelimi­nary studies and review studies interconnected to the biomimetics. After that, research continued with the identication of problems depending on facts and data [18]. Then data were stored on biomimetic attributes that mimic animal traits. After
8 Animal Tribology
that data is processed which is then compared to various attributes and then the biomimetic data is collected that imitates animal’s attributes. After that an assess­ment of the valuable data that has been compared and grouped is held out [19]. Then a comparative analysis of data was brought out for individual of the grouped data. Then overall conclusion is drawn [18, 19].
221

8.2 Animal Tribology

The natural world displays so many fascinating tribological events. This can be seen in examples in many animals [22]. Migrating birds such as the albatross that y extremely long distances have dark wing tops. The temperature difference between bright and dark coloured top wing results in the increase in temperature in dark coloured wing top [23, 24]. This reduces skin drag force over the wing [25]. Comparing the efciency of ying style in bats and birds, they found that morphol­ogy, ight style and wake dynamics in the two animals determine the efciency of their ight mode [26, 27]. One ight mode may be efcient for one type of animal, but not the other. Adhesive force in gecko’s foot has also been studied [28, 29]. The presence of nearly ve hundred thousand keratinous hairs or setae on one foot of a gecko [30] is the factor that made them the largest creature capable of producing high force of adhesion with minimum risk [31, 32]. The octopus Octopus vulgaris inspires the solution for soft robotics to exert effective forces in unstructured envi­ronments [33]. The smart solution of the octopus to crawl, grasp and manipulate with its same limb is suitable to be adopted in the development for a more complex soft robot, which with minimum control, can perform diverse tasks [34, 35]. Specic ventral surface ornamentation of The California King Snake Lampropeltis getula californiae reduces wear by having specic ventral surface ornamentation [36, 37]. Such ornamentation reduces the frictional coefcient and generates anisotropic fric­tional properties, and reduces stick-slip vibrations during sliding [3840].
There are also numerous behaviours and characters in insects that portray tribo­logical events. This can be seen from the extremely high abundance and diversity of insects in the natural world. We identify four [4] main characters in insects that can be linked to tribology as shown in Fig.8.4 [41].

8.2.1 Joint

Joints in some insect species have been found to have friction minimization effects [42]. The hind legs of orthopteran insects (e.g. grasshoppers, crickets, and katydids) are highly specialized for jumping. Surfaces and textures of the hind femur-tibia joint of katydids (Fig.8.4) are unique with friction coefcient at its coupling surface of 0.053+0.001 [43, 44]. Synergistic interaction between the hierarchical surface
222
Fig. 8.4 Human-related tribology [40, 41]
R. Gour etal.
texture/pattern on the femoral surfaces, nano-graded internal nanostructure of the articulating joints, and the presence of lubricating lipids make the joints free from any signs of wear or damage [45, 46].
In Pachnoda marginata and Geotrupes stercorarius beetles on the other hand, high stiffness of the joint material and hydrophobicity of the joint surface are the two factors that lead to the minimized friction in the joints [46].
8.2.2 Exoskeleton Contact withSurrounding
Insect’s external skin or its exoskeleton is continuously in contact with its surround­ing. This surrounding can be the air, water or soil (or wood in the case of wood­living insects) [47]. Numerous studies have demonstrated the protective qualities of an insect’s outer coat espcally in case of American cockroach (Periplaneta ameri- cana), which is caused by a substance known as wax. Wax produced by the cock­roach has lubrication properties that form thin lms and can repel dust (self-cleaning) [48]. Superhydrophobic surfaces in insects particularly in the ones that live in the water retain air lm and ultimately lower friction [49, 50].
8 Animal Tribology
223

8.2.3 Integumentary Change

Insects undergo several moulting processes in their lives in order to grow. Majority of them also make their way out from their pupae or cocoon into adulthood. Presence of moulting uid has been reported in assisting the process [51].
8.2.4 Other Body Parts withIts Surrounding
Insects use hairy or smooth adhesive pads to stick to almost all known surfaces [52]. Contact between these adhesive pads and the surface substrate is mediated via nano­metre thin lms of adhesive uid [51]. Heel pads (euplantulae) in many stick insects and mantophasmids on the other hand functions differently though. Adhesion mechanism does not occur in Euplantulae [51]. Triangular sawtooth microstructures in the mouth fascicle of mosquitoes and cicadas have been manipulated in the inven­tion of bionic drag painless needles [53, 54]. The non-smooth surface structure of the mosquitoes’ and cicadas’ fascicle with obvious principles of drag reduction effect were adopted in the needles’ design. Bionic needle surface’s microstructure reduces needles’ contact area, form rolling, friction and thus resistance to needle piercing. In short, there are so many tribological events in nature, particularly in insects that can be manipulated, applied and benetted for our daily lives. Friction reduction that prevents wear and damage, increase of joint efciency, enhancement of adhesion mechanism, smart solutions in solving multitasking, self-cleaning, and pain reduction in needle piercing are some tribological events in insects that have revolutionized the well-being of human. They are still many more tribological fea­tures in insects that are open for discovery [55, 56].
On the basis of the review studies, it was found that researchers carried out a lot of biomimetic research that imitated the types of properties of animal groups. Figure8.5 shows that about 53% of vertebrates and 47% of invertebrates have been studied by researchers for the benet of biomimetics. In Table8.1, it can be seen the grouping of animal species imitated for material purposes and biomimetic design related to the application of tribology. The animals mentioned in Table 8.1 have unique characteristics that can inspire the manufacture of articial products for tri­bological purposes [56]. Synovial uid in mammals really keeps joints from wear­ing out easily. Until now, researchers have not found and will continue to try to imitate a uid formula that is similar to synovial characteristics in order to meet the lubrication needs. The gecko’s feet, which have extraordinary adhesion, can be imi­tated by making synthetic keratin and choosing materials that are super hydropho­bic. The dust-repelling properties can be imitated from the lubricating wax produced by cockroaches. Imitation of the structure of spider silk bers can enhance the strength of any material. The structure of the best needle design for the world of health can imitate that of mosquitoes and the surface structure of crickets. Imitation of the structure of spider silk bers can enhance the strength of any material. The
224
Fig. 8.5 Percentage of biomimetic mapping through animal species [55, 56]
R. Gour etal.
movement of ships in the sea can be even faster if they imitate the shape of the structure of the skin of a shark. The results of the study show that so far, researchers have used more biomimetic properties than imitating the characteristics of reptiles and insects. The result of this research is that the material produced by mimicking the biomimetic properties of reptiles and insects is still the dominant one used in nding solutions related to tribology [5456].
8.3 Application ofTribology inBiological System
The application of tribology in biological systems is a rapidly growing eld and extends well beyond the conventional boundaries. Biomedical tribological systems involve an extensive range of synthetic materials and natural tissues, including car­tilage, blood vessels, heart, tendons, ligaments, and skin as shown in Fig.8.4.
These materials operate in complex interactive biological environments. Biotribologists incorporate concepts of friction, wear, and lubrication of these bio­logical surfaces in various applications, such as the design of joints and prosthetic devices, the wear of screws and plates in bone fracture repair, wear of denture and restorative materials, wear of replacement heart valves, and even the tribology of contact lenses [5761].
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