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4 Biological Smart Materials: Materials forCancer Treatment
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Chapter 5
Tribological Measurements ofHuman Skin
AyushiPal, ReetuGour , AshwaniKumar , AbhishekKumar , AvinashKumar , andNusratChowdhury
Abstract There are practical answers to tribology-related problems all around us.
Often, one of the interacting surfaces in relative motion is the human skin. Tribological measurement of the skin is an asset to study the properties of the skin and how they are altered in different conditions and with the popular dermal treat­ments. Test procedures for skin tribology must be invivo, subject- and anatomical location-specic. In this system, measurement includes the contact with a exible body and the presence of friction-induced vibration. Tribological studies depend on the frictional and electrical properties of the skin surface, which are determined by the frictional coefcients. These studies are used to quantify skin hydration and health. The friction coefcient of the skin measured depends on key factors like age, anatomical site, and skin hydration. Other factors which affect the coefcient are the design of the measuring instrument and the probe geometry and material. It was found that the skin with decreased hydration had a reduced friction coefcient and an increased resistance to current ow. The treatments on the skin which can affect the skin hydration level also inuence the friction coefcient. The application of
A. Pal · R. Gour (*) Department of Microbiology, IIMT University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
A. Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical Education Department Uttar Pradesh (under Government of Uttar Pradesh), Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
A. Kumar J.Mike Walker ’66 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Merced, CA, USA
A. Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing (IIITDM), Kancheepuram, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
N. Chowdhury University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
A. Kumar et al. (eds.), Applications of Biotribology in Biomedical Systems,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-58327-8_5
149© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
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emollients and moisturisers inuences the quantity of greasiness and stickiness quantitatively. Surface texturing and polymer brush coatings are intriguing new developments because they offer a way to customise friction in sliding contacts without having to make signicant product adjustments.
Keywords Human skin · Tribology · Biotribology · Friction coefcient

5.1 Introduction

The term “Tribology” has been used to refer to the technological and scientic study of wear, friction, and lubrication on surfaces that are interacting [22]. The advance­ment of tribology has generated an enormous amount of interest from both the aca­demic and commercial cultures, as it is crucial to the growth of both the global nancial system and human civilisation [22]. There has been a surge in interest in tribology from both the academic and business realms. It is a multidisciplinary subject that combines three disciplines: wear (materials science), lubrication (mechanical engineering and chemistry), and friction (physics and mechanical engineering) [14]. Recent research ndings and principles underlie regulating in lubrication, wear, sur­face engineering, biotribology, high-temperature tribology, and computational tribol­ogy in the pursuit of a thorough knowledge of current advancements in tribology [22]. There has been a tremendous amount of study done in the eld of biotribology, span­ning a variety of fundamental mechanisms and a wide range of useful applications [22]. Dowson coined the term “biotribology” and rst used it to describe “tribology aspects concerned with biological systems” in 1970 [34]. It is among the most fasci­nating and quickly developing elds in tribology. It is acknowledged as one of the most crucial factors in many biological systems when it comes to understanding how our natural systems function, how diseases arise, and how medicinal interventions ought to be used [34]. Additionally, since the 1970s, roughly 10 scientic publications or edited volumes have been written on this topic, including Advance in Medical Tribology, Human Joints and Their Articial Replacements, Bioengineering of the Skin, Biological Micro- and Nano-tribology, and Dental Biotribology [34].
One of the body’s initial boundaries of defence against the external environment, it covers the entire body and shields all kinds of tissues and organs from physical, chemical, mechanical, and microbial pathogen threats. Due to work, exercise, keep­ing warm, health, and cosmetic requirements, human skin can come into touch with a range of materials on a regular basis, which can lead to a number of skin friction issues. As a result, over the years, scientists have been drawn to the fascinating sci­entic topic of the tribology of human skin [34]. It is convenient to examine and describe the skin in terms of its surface properties since the skin is a surface in and of itself [24].
Skin tribology is a challenging yet intriguing eld for research and development as skin type is highly individual, as are its pigmentation, moisture level, roughness, and many other characteristics. Even if members of the same ethnic groups live in the
5 Tribological Measurements ofHuman Skin
151
same surroundings and lead similar lifestyles, there are noticeable differences in their psychological makeup [7]. Tribological assessments of skin are conducted for fasci­nating information about how the skin reacts to different materials, how the proper­ties of skin are changed depending on factors like age and health, and by a range of ailments and chemical treatments [24]. The upsurge of cosmetic industry and the effects of skin care products were the primary objectives of tribological studies on skin, or they addressed dermatological issues such skin condition, ageing, skin inju­ries, wound healing, and prosthesis [10]. The usage of face masks has expanded as a result of the recent Covid-19 pandemics; however, these masks can induce skin lesions because they apply constant pressure, tension, and friction to the skin (20). The initial tactile encounter with a product, whether it’s an automotive interior or a portable music player, greatly inuences its perceived worth. Only a small number of skin tribology works concentrated on theoretical inquiries, with the majority using experimental methods [21]. Engineering a product’s tactile nature for better sensory perception has the ability to transform product design. Products may cause friction­induced damage to the skin, including blistering. Correlations between human sen­sory outcomes (e.g. softness, smoothness, leather-like feel) and quantitative physical qualities (e.g. friction coefcient, elastic modulus) have proved challenging to estab­lish [8]. It should be noted that tribological measurements offer a minimally invasive approach for quantitatively evaluating the moisture content and general health of skin constitutes one of the advantages they offer [24]. Studies examined the role of skin friction, particularly that of the nger pad, in relation to the sense of touch clas­sied within an additional eld [10]. There appears to be a fresh trend in materials development that incorporates human considerations like skin compatibility, tactile perception, touch characteristics, and ergonomics more and more [10]. To improve and optimise surfaces and materials that come into touch with the skin, knowledge of the contact mechanics and friction behaviour of human skin is a must [10]. Current tribological investigations on materials contacting the skin include textiles, accept­able surfaces for consumer products, medicinal and sports applications [10]. It is well known that materials and objects’ tactile qualities depend heavily on their fric­tion and surface features. Human subject testing can be used to evaluate friction and tactile characteristics; however, instrumental tribological measures are a useful sub­stitute that yield objective, more repeatable results (with no inter- and intra-subject variances) [10]. Due to this, attempts have been made to use mechanical skin models in conjunction with tribological testing, which simulates real-world mechanical con­tacts between the skin and exterior materials [10]. A study discussed the tribological properties of newer types of ceramics, glasses, polymers, and coatings while analys­ing the demand for advances in tribology from the material point of view [5]. To create articial skin and improve prosthetic implants, it is necessary to research the tribological characteristics of human skin [28]. The ndings suggest favourable tri­bological behaviour can be achieved via material modications (i.e. microstructural changes), hybrid constructions, and specic (solid) lubrication and coatings. These ndings highlight “advanced material” tremendous potential for tribological applica­tions [5]. The review focuses on the tribology of human skin, analysing experimental results for skin friction coefcients.
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5.2 Human Skin

Skin is one of the most intricate, delicate, and protective organs of the human body [24]. It accounts for roughly 16% of a person’s weight and covers 1.6–2.0m2 of the adult human body’s surface area [34]. Skin is the largest organ of the body. Apart from that, it is the rst line of defence and physical barrier of the body against the environment. Similar to many other organs, the skin is susceptible to a variety of diseases. Specically in resource-poor nations, dermatological conditions represent the fourth most prevalent cause of non-fatal disability worldwide. According to a 2013 estimate, out of 306 diseases and injuries, skin disorders made up 1.79% of the all-around worldwide prevalence of disease (GBD) measured in disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) [3]. Skin issues are typically thought to be the result of the inter­action between a number of factors, such as the natural make-up of the individual (genetic components, internal diseases, immune function susceptibility), and the outside environment (infections, tension, and daily routine, nutrition, or exposure to ultraviolet light) depicted in Fig.5.1 [3].
The human skin consists of many layers in which the epidermis is the outermost layer of skin, while the dermis is the innermost layer, separated from one another by the basement membrane. The ve layers that make up the epidermis are the stratum
corneum, which is the outermost layer, the stratum granulosum, the stratum spino- sum, the stratum basale (the innermost layer that contains epidermal stem cells),
Daily
Routine
(Harmful
Chemicals,
Stressful
life)
Injury to
Skin
(Wounds,
Trauma,
Irritants)
Fig. 5.1 Underlying factors affecting skin
Microbial
Attack
(Bacterial,
Fungal)
Environme
ntal Factors
(UV light, Pollution,
Weather)
Skin
Nutritional
Factors
(Diet and
Fasting)
Genetic
Factors
and Internal Diseases
5 Tribological Measurements ofHuman Skin
Fig. 5.2 Schematic diagram of human skin anatomy [6]
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and the stratum lucidum, which is only found in a few specic areas of the human body, including the ngertips, palms, and soles of feet [3] depicted in Fig.5.2. The “intimidating” physical barrier is represented by the stratum corneum, which is exceptionally thick and made up of dead cells (corneocytes) surrounded with lipid draughts [3]. The sebaceous gland, hair follicle, and interfollicular epidermis are some of the renewing structures that make up the human epidermis. Humans have less developed hair than other terrestrial mammals, yet their interfollicular epider­mis is thick and well-formed [17]. The approximate thickness of stratum corneum varies between 20 and 40μm depending on the body’s location. The epidermis is the second layer of skin, with a high concentration of keratinocytes and measuring between 75 and 150μm in thickness. Keratinocytes are cells that move outward and originate in the epidermis’ basal layer. The mechanical characteristics and thickness of the skin layers vary. Skin deformation in response to contact is determined by the collective behaviour of these layers, each of which has a distinct role, composition, and mechanical attribute [31, 32]. The hypodermis, also known as subcutaneous tissue, is a layer made up of loose connective tissue and elastin that serves as a res­ervoir for nutrients and energy as well as shock absorption and insulation from cold temperatures. The buttocks, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet have the thick­est hypodermis. The hypodermis starts to diminish as we age, which leads to the thin, sagging appearance of our skin [3].
Skin is made up of many substances, such as various combinations of collagen and elastin. Skin and soft organ tissues have a nonlinear stress-strain relationship, although the degrees vary depending on the tissue, according to a study [29]. Human skin‘s intricate structure and unique physicochemical characteristics make it the body’s most effective barrier against external invaders and aid in preserving homeo­stasis. The stratum corneum, which makes up the majority of the epidermis barrier, performs this function. Both environmental and personal variables affect the state of