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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5603_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
X
- •Aim and Scope
- •Preface
- •Acknowledgments
- •Contents
- •Contributors
- •About the Editors
- •1.1 Introduction
- •1.2.1 Friction
- •1.2.1.3 Friction Under Lubricated Conditions
- •1.7.1 Joint Tribology
- •1.7.2 Skin Tribology
- •1.7.3 Oral Tribology
- •1.8 Summary
- •References
- •2.1 Introduction
- •2.3.1 Fluid Pressurization/Fluid-Film Lubrication
- •2.3.2 Boundary Lubrication
- •2.3.3 Hydrodynamic Lubrication
- •2.3.4 Squeeze-Film Lubrication
- •2.3.5 Synovial Fluid
- •2.3.6 Hydration Lubrication
- •2.5.2 Scaffolds
- •2.5.3 Synthetic Polymer
- •2.5.4 Polyacrylamide
- •2.5.5 PEG Hydrogel
- •2.5.6 PVA Hydrogel
- •2.5.7 Double Network Hydrogel
- •2.5.8 Triple Network Hydrogel
- •2.6.1 Polyacrylamide
- •2.6.2 PEG Hydrogel
- •2.6.3 PVA Hydrogel
- •2.6.4 Double Network Hydrogel
- •2.6.5 Triple Network Hydrogel
- •2.7.1 Mechanical Properties
- •2.7.2 Structural Properties
- •2.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •3.1 Introduction
- •3.3.1 Label-Based Biosensors
- •3.3.2 Label-Free Biosensors
- •3.4 Different Nanobiosensing Techniques
- •3.4.1 Optical Sensing
- •3.4.2 Electrochemical/Electrical Sensing
- •3.4.3 Magnetic Sensing
- •3.4.4 Mass-Based Sensing
- •3.6.2 Neurodegenerative Diseases
- •3.6.3 Infectious Diseases
- •3.6.4 Metabolic Diseases
- •References
- •4.1 Introduction
- •4.2.1 Surface Functionalization
- •4.2.2 Bioconjugation
- •4.3 Synthesis Approach
- •4.3.1 Hydrothermal Method
- •4.3.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
- •4.3.3 Wet Chemical Method
- •4.4 Plasmonic Black Bodies (PBBs)
- •4.4.1 Gold NP (AuNPs)-Based PBB
- •4.4.2 Silver NPs (Ag NPs)-Based PBB
- •4.4.3 Platinum NPs (Pt NPs)-Based PBB
- •4.5 Biomimetic NP
- •4.6 Upconverting NP (UCNP)
- •4.6.1 Synthesis
- •4.7 Inorganic NP
- •4.7.1 Synthesis
- •4.8 Photothermal Therapy (PTT)
- •4.9 Conclusion
- •References
- •5.1 Introduction
- •5.2 Human Skin
- •5.10 Future Scope
- •5.11 Conclusion
- •References
- •6.1 Introduction
- •6.1.1 Class 1
- •6.1.2 Class 2
- •6.1.3 Class 3
- •6.4.1.1 Surface Patterning
- •6.4.1.2 Direct-Write Patterning
- •6.4.1.5 Dip-Pen Nanotechnology
- •6.4.1.7 Composing Using Beams
- •6.4.1.8 Direct Write Photolithography (DWP)
- •6.4.1.9 Light-Beam Lithography Electron
- •6.4.1.10 Focused Ion Beam Lithography
- •6.4.2 Fabrication Techniques
- •6.4.2.4 Non-invasive Glucose Monitoring Devices Technique
- •6.4.2.6 Cost-Effective Electrochemical Voltametric Sensors Techniques
- •6.4.2.7 Three-Dimensional (3D) Printing Techniques
- •6.4.2.8 UV-LED Stereolithography Printer Technique
- •6.4.2.9 4D Printing Techniques
- •6.4.2.10 Advanced Biomedical Techniques Involving Biorobots
- •References
- •7.1 Introduction
- •7.6 Mechanical Biocompatibility Challenges
- •7.7 Poor Bio-Printing Resolution
- •7.9 Limited Biomaterial Selection
- •7.11 Conclusion
- •8.2 Animal Tribology
- •8.2.1 Joint
- •8.2.3 Integumentary Change
- •References
- •8.1 Introduction
- •8.3.1 Nanotribology
- •8.4 Green Tribology
- •8.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •9.1 Introduction
- •9.2 Bio-Tribological Issues
- •9.3.2 Bone Fracture Fixation
- •9.3.4 Cardiovascular Devices
- •9.3.5 Minimal Invasive Surgical Devices
- •References
- •10.1 Introduction
- •10.2.2.1 Structural Integrity
- •10.2.2.2 Controlled Release Properties
- •10.2.2.3 Enhanced Drug Loading Capacity
- •10.2.2.4 Tailored Material Properties
- •10.2.3.1 Biocompatibility
- •10.2.3.3 Mechanical Properties
- •10.2.3.4 Drug Compatibility
- •10.2.3.5 Fabrication Compatibility
- •10.3.1 Matrix Material Properties
- •10.3.4 Biocompatibility Assessment
- •10.3.4.1 In Vitro Cell Culture Studies
- •10.3.4.2 Hemocompatibility Studies
- •10.3.4.3 In Vivo Animal Studies
- •10.3.4.4 Histological Analysis
- •10.3.4.5 Immune Response Evaluation
- •10.3.4.6 Biodegradation Assessment
- •10.4 Surface Engineering Considerations
- •10.4.2.1 Surface Coatings
- •10.4.2.2 Plasma Treatment
- •10.4.2.3 Surface Grafting
- •10.4.2.4 Dip Coating
- •10.4.2.5 Spray Coating System
- •10.4.2.6 Electrotreated Coating
- •10.4.2.9 Microfabrication Techniques
- •10.4.2.10 Surface Roughness Control
- •10.5.1.2 Mechanical Properties
- •10.5.1.3 Surface Characteristics
- •10.5.1.4 Release Kinetics Analysis
- •10.5.1.5 Biological Compatibility
- •10.5.1.7 Other Analyses
- •10.6 Advanced Fabrication Techniques
- •10.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •11.1 Introduction
- •11.2 Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)
- •11.3 Shape Memory Polymers
- •11.3.1 Heat
- •11.3.2 Light
- •11.3.3 Magnetic Field
- •11.4 Shape-Changing Hydrogels
- •11.5 Biomedical Applications
- •11.6 Conclusion
- •References
- •12.1 Introduction
- •12.3 Bioresorbable Orthopedic Implants
- •12.4.1 Polylactides
- •12.4.2 Poly (Ortho Esters)
- •12.4.3 Polyphosphoesters
- •12.4.4 Polyphosphazenes
- •12.4.5 Polycaprolactone
- •12.4.6 Polyurethanes
- •12.4.7 Polycarbonates
- •12.5.1 Compression Molding
- •12.5.2 Transfer Molding
- •12.5.3 Injection Molding
- •12.5.4 Extrusion
- •12.5.5 Blow Molding
- •12.5.6 Calendering Process
- •12.5.7 Fiber Spinning
- •12.5.8 Thermoforming
- •12.5.9 Polymer Foaming
- •12.7 Challenges
- •12.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •13.1 Introduction
- •13.3.1.1 Total Hip Replacement (THR)
- •13.3.2 Resurfacing Hip Replacement (RHR)
- •13.5.1 Adhesive Wear
- •13.5.2 Abrasive Wear
- •13.5.3 Fatigue Wear
- •13.5.4 Corrosion/Oxidative Wear
- •13.5.5 Surface Cracking
- •13.6.1 Metallic Implants
- •13.6.1.1 Stainless Steel
- •13.6.1.2 Co-Cr Alloys
- •13.6.1.3 Ti-Alloy
- •13.6.2 Ceramic Implants
- •13.6.3 Polymer Implants
- •13.6.4 Composite Implants
- •13.6.5.2 Surface Coatings
- •13.7.2.1 Hydrodynamic Lubrication
- •13.7.2.2 Boundary Lubrication
- •13.7.2.3 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
- •13.7.3 Biomimetic Lubrication Approaches
- •13.7.3.1 Replicating Natural Lubrication Mechanisms
- •13.7.4.1 Implant Wear
- •13.7.4.3 Synovial Fluid Degradation
- •13.8.1 Hydroxyapatite Coatings
- •13.8.1.1 Bone Integration
- •13.8.1.2 Implant Stability
- •13.8.1.4 Biocompatibility
- •13.8.2 Diamond-Like Carbon Coatings
- •13.8.3 Metal Nitride Coatings
- •13.8.4 Polymeric Coatings
- •13.8.5 Nanocomposite Coatings
- •13.9.1 Pin-on-Disk Testing
- •13.9.2 Hip Joint Simulators
- •13.9.3 Knee Joint Simulators
- •13.9.4 Tribo-Corrosion Testing
- •13.9.5 Wear Debris Analysis Techniques
- •13.9.5.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
- •13.9.5.2 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS)
- •13.10.1.1 Tailored Geometries
- •13.10.1.2 Improved Wear Characteristics
- •13.10.1.3 Accelerated Innovation
- •13.10.2.1 Real-Time Wear Monitoring
- •13.10.2.2 Functionality Assessment
- •13.10.2.3 Implant Status Monitoring
- •13.10.2.4 Patient-Centric Healthcare
- •13.10.3.1 Advanced Biomaterials
- •13.10.3.4 Multidisciplinary Approaches
- •13.10.4.1 Wear Data Analysis
- •13.10.4.2 Predictive Wear Patterns
- •13.10.4.3 Early Intervention Strategies
- •13.10.4.4 Personalized Treatment Plans
- •13.11 Conclusion
- •References
- •14.1 Introduction
- •14.2.1 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
- •14.2.2 Directed Energy Deposition
- •14.3.1 Extrusion-Based AM
- •14.5 Biomanufacturing
- •14.5.1 Tissue Engineering
- •14.5.2 Organ-on-a-Chip Models
- •14.6 Conclusion
- •References
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Chapter 5
Tribological Measurements ofHuman Skin
AyushiPal, ReetuGour , AshwaniKumar , AbhishekKumar ,
AvinashKumar , andNusratChowdhury
Abstract There are practical answers to tribology-related problems all around us.
Often, one of the interacting surfaces in relative motion is the human skin.
Tribological measurement of the skin is an asset to study the properties of the skin
and how they are altered in different conditions and with the popular dermal treatments. Test procedures for skin tribology must be invivo, subject- and anatomical
location-specic. In this system, measurement includes the contact with a exible
body and the presence of friction-induced vibration. Tribological studies depend on
the frictional and electrical properties of the skin surface, which are determined by
the frictional coefcients. These studies are used to quantify skin hydration and
health. The friction coefcient of the skin measured depends on key factors like age,
anatomical site, and skin hydration. Other factors which affect the coefcient are
the design of the measuring instrument and the probe geometry and material. It was
found that the skin with decreased hydration had a reduced friction coefcient and
an increased resistance to current ow. The treatments on the skin which can affect
the skin hydration level also inuence the friction coefcient. The application of
A. Pal · R. Gour (*)
Department of Microbiology, IIMT University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
A. Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical Education Department Uttar Pradesh
(under Government of Uttar Pradesh), Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
A. Kumar
J.Mike Walker ’66 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University,
College Station, TX, USA
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Merced, CA, USA
A. Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Information Technology Design &
Manufacturing (IIITDM), Kancheepuram, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
N. Chowdhury
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
A. Kumar et al. (eds.), Applications of Biotribology in Biomedical Systems,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-58327-8_5
149© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024

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A. Pal et al.
emollients and moisturisers inuences the quantity of greasiness and stickiness
quantitatively. Surface texturing and polymer brush coatings are intriguing new
developments because they offer a way to customise friction in sliding contacts
without having to make signicant product adjustments.
Keywords Human skin · Tribology · Biotribology · Friction coefcient
5.1 Introduction
The term “Tribology” has been used to refer to the technological and scientic study
of wear, friction, and lubrication on surfaces that are interacting [22]. The advancement of tribology has generated an enormous amount of interest from both the academic and commercial cultures, as it is crucial to the growth of both the global
nancial system and human civilisation [22]. There has been a surge in interest in
tribology from both the academic and business realms. It is a multidisciplinary subject
that combines three disciplines: wear (materials science), lubrication (mechanical
engineering and chemistry), and friction (physics and mechanical engineering) [14].
Recent research ndings and principles underlie regulating in lubrication, wear, surface engineering, biotribology, high-temperature tribology, and computational tribology in the pursuit of a thorough knowledge of current advancements in tribology [22].
There has been a tremendous amount of study done in the eld of biotribology, spanning a variety of fundamental mechanisms and a wide range of useful applications
[22]. Dowson coined the term “biotribology” and rst used it to describe “tribology
aspects concerned with biological systems” in 1970 [34]. It is among the most fascinating and quickly developing elds in tribology. It is acknowledged as one of the
most crucial factors in many biological systems when it comes to understanding how
our natural systems function, how diseases arise, and how medicinal interventions
ought to be used [34]. Additionally, since the 1970s, roughly 10 scientic publications
or edited volumes have been written on this topic, including Advance in Medical
Tribology, Human Joints and Their Articial Replacements, Bioengineering of the
Skin, Biological Micro- and Nano-tribology, and Dental Biotribology [34].
One of the body’s initial boundaries of defence against the external environment,
it covers the entire body and shields all kinds of tissues and organs from physical,
chemical, mechanical, and microbial pathogen threats. Due to work, exercise, keeping warm, health, and cosmetic requirements, human skin can come into touch with
a range of materials on a regular basis, which can lead to a number of skin friction
issues. As a result, over the years, scientists have been drawn to the fascinating scientic topic of the tribology of human skin [34]. It is convenient to examine and
describe the skin in terms of its surface properties since the skin is a surface in and
of itself [24].
Skin tribology is a challenging yet intriguing eld for research and development
as skin type is highly individual, as are its pigmentation, moisture level, roughness,
and many other characteristics. Even if members of the same ethnic groups live in the

5 Tribological Measurements ofHuman Skin
151
same surroundings and lead similar lifestyles, there are noticeable differences in their
psychological makeup [7]. Tribological assessments of skin are conducted for fascinating information about how the skin reacts to different materials, how the properties of skin are changed depending on factors like age and health, and by a range of
ailments and chemical treatments [24]. The upsurge of cosmetic industry and the
effects of skin care products were the primary objectives of tribological studies on
skin, or they addressed dermatological issues such skin condition, ageing, skin injuries, wound healing, and prosthesis [10]. The usage of face masks has expanded as a
result of the recent Covid-19 pandemics; however, these masks can induce skin
lesions because they apply constant pressure, tension, and friction to the skin (20).
The initial tactile encounter with a product, whether it’s an automotive interior or a
portable music player, greatly inuences its perceived worth. Only a small number of
skin tribology works concentrated on theoretical inquiries, with the majority using
experimental methods [21]. Engineering a product’s tactile nature for better sensory
perception has the ability to transform product design. Products may cause frictioninduced damage to the skin, including blistering. Correlations between human sensory outcomes (e.g. softness, smoothness, leather-like feel) and quantitative physical
qualities (e.g. friction coefcient, elastic modulus) have proved challenging to establish [8]. It should be noted that tribological measurements offer a minimally invasive
approach for quantitatively evaluating the moisture content and general health of
skin constitutes one of the advantages they offer [24]. Studies examined the role of
skin friction, particularly that of the nger pad, in relation to the sense of touch classied within an additional eld [10]. There appears to be a fresh trend in materials
development that incorporates human considerations like skin compatibility, tactile
perception, touch characteristics, and ergonomics more and more [10]. To improve
and optimise surfaces and materials that come into touch with the skin, knowledge of
the contact mechanics and friction behaviour of human skin is a must [10]. Current
tribological investigations on materials contacting the skin include textiles, acceptable surfaces for consumer products, medicinal and sports applications [10]. It is
well known that materials and objects’ tactile qualities depend heavily on their friction and surface features. Human subject testing can be used to evaluate friction and
tactile characteristics; however, instrumental tribological measures are a useful substitute that yield objective, more repeatable results (with no inter- and intra-subject
variances) [10]. Due to this, attempts have been made to use mechanical skin models
in conjunction with tribological testing, which simulates real-world mechanical contacts between the skin and exterior materials [10]. A study discussed the tribological
properties of newer types of ceramics, glasses, polymers, and coatings while analysing the demand for advances in tribology from the material point of view [5]. To
create articial skin and improve prosthetic implants, it is necessary to research the
tribological characteristics of human skin [28]. The ndings suggest favourable tribological behaviour can be achieved via material modications (i.e. microstructural
changes), hybrid constructions, and specic (solid) lubrication and coatings. These
ndings highlight “advanced material” tremendous potential for tribological applications [5]. The review focuses on the tribology of human skin, analysing experimental
results for skin friction coefcients.

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A. Pal et al.
5.2 Human Skin
Skin is one of the most intricate, delicate, and protective organs of the human body
[24]. It accounts for roughly 16% of a person’s weight and covers 1.6–2.0m2 of the
adult human body’s surface area [34]. Skin is the largest organ of the body. Apart
from that, it is the rst line of defence and physical barrier of the body against the
environment. Similar to many other organs, the skin is susceptible to a variety of
diseases. Specically in resource-poor nations, dermatological conditions represent
the fourth most prevalent cause of non-fatal disability worldwide. According to a
2013 estimate, out of 306 diseases and injuries, skin disorders made up 1.79% of the
all-around worldwide prevalence of disease (GBD) measured in disability-adjusted
life years (DALYs) [3]. Skin issues are typically thought to be the result of the interaction between a number of factors, such as the natural make-up of the individual
(genetic components, internal diseases, immune function susceptibility), and the
outside environment (infections, tension, and daily routine, nutrition, or exposure to
ultraviolet light) depicted in Fig.5.1 [3].
The human skin consists of many layers in which the epidermis is the outermost
layer of skin, while the dermis is the innermost layer, separated from one another by
the basement membrane. The ve layers that make up the epidermis are the stratum
corneum, which is the outermost layer, the stratum granulosum, the stratum spino-
sum, the stratum basale (the innermost layer that contains epidermal stem cells),
Daily
Routine
(Harmful
Chemicals,
Stressful
life)
Injury to
Skin
(Wounds,
Trauma,
Irritants)
Fig. 5.1 Underlying factors affecting skin
Microbial
Attack
(Bacterial,
Fungal)
Environme
ntal Factors
(UV light,
Pollution,
Weather)
Skin
Nutritional
Factors
(Diet and
Fasting)
Genetic
Factors
and
Internal
Diseases

5 Tribological Measurements ofHuman Skin
Fig. 5.2 Schematic diagram of human skin anatomy [6]
153
and the stratum lucidum, which is only found in a few specic areas of the human
body, including the ngertips, palms, and soles of feet [3] depicted in Fig.5.2. The
“intimidating” physical barrier is represented by the stratum corneum, which is
exceptionally thick and made up of dead cells (corneocytes) surrounded with lipid
draughts [3]. The sebaceous gland, hair follicle, and interfollicular epidermis are
some of the renewing structures that make up the human epidermis. Humans have
less developed hair than other terrestrial mammals, yet their interfollicular epidermis is thick and well-formed [17]. The approximate thickness of stratum corneum
varies between 20 and 40μm depending on the body’s location. The epidermis is the
second layer of skin, with a high concentration of keratinocytes and measuring
between 75 and 150μm in thickness. Keratinocytes are cells that move outward and
originate in the epidermis’ basal layer. The mechanical characteristics and thickness
of the skin layers vary. Skin deformation in response to contact is determined by the
collective behaviour of these layers, each of which has a distinct role, composition,
and mechanical attribute [31, 32]. The hypodermis, also known as subcutaneous
tissue, is a layer made up of loose connective tissue and elastin that serves as a reservoir for nutrients and energy as well as shock absorption and insulation from cold
temperatures. The buttocks, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet have the thickest hypodermis. The hypodermis starts to diminish as we age, which leads to the
thin, sagging appearance of our skin [3].
Skin is made up of many substances, such as various combinations of collagen
and elastin. Skin and soft organ tissues have a nonlinear stress-strain relationship,
although the degrees vary depending on the tissue, according to a study [29]. Human
skin‘s intricate structure and unique physicochemical characteristics make it the
body’s most effective barrier against external invaders and aid in preserving homeostasis. The stratum corneum, which makes up the majority of the epidermis barrier,
performs this function. Both environmental and personal variables affect the state of
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