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unique properties such as high surface area-to-volume ratio, high surface reactivity,
high absorption capacity, abundance of surface-activated functional groups, and
better thermal stabilities [117]. Despite the proven benets of NMs, one cannot
ignore their associated risks, regulation, and management after shelf-life. It is
always recommended to employ nanotechnology with a balanced perception with
respect to environmental health and public safety [118–120].
A. Chakraborty et al.
3.7.1 Advantages ofNanobiosensors
Response time, i.e. how quickly the sensor can detect a change in signal, is an
important parameter for any efcient biosensors. A high surface-to-volume ratio
and high reactivity of nanomaterials are major factors behind the fast response time
of the nanobiosensors. Also, these along with high adsorption property of nanomaterials used in the transducers, the nanobiosensors show high permeability to analytes resulting in fast response time compared to conventional techniques and are
capable to provide instantaneous results.
The application of NMs has enabled the attainment of high levels of signal resolution and such sensors are projected to provide better signal-to-noise ratio.
Nanomaterials provide extremely high surface area/volume ratio which makes them
gain more sensitivity for the detection of a single molecule or atom or chemical
molecules even at trace level. The ultrahigh surface-to-volume ratios of nanostructures render them with extraordinary electric properties. Such sensors can be
extremely sensitive to detect any surface-adsorbed species.
Nanosensors are extremely small devices capable of detecting and responding to
a wide array of analytes. Their very small size, reliable and highly sensitive nature
provides researchers with a lab-on-chip ready for real-time analysis of several clinical procedures. Nanosensing techniques with smaller footprint that are highly portable are gaining popularity both in researcher and consumer levels, encouraging
more consumer products based on nanobiosensing being available in market.
Nanobiosensors are highly selective for their respective analytes, as they are able
to selectively detect the analyte of desire from complex media with presence of
other interfering substances. Combining analyte-specic receptor molecules on the
surface of nanotransducers (e.g. enzymes, antibodies) ensure the effective selectivity in nanobiosensors.
3.7.2 Limitations ofNanobiosensors
Recent manufacturing progresses have made possible fabrication of NMs of different properties, sizes and shapes. Their endless possibility to combine with wide
range of bio-selective ligands helps in developing highly sensitive and selective
detection systems. Though the overall nanobiosensing technique provides great
3 Recent Advancements in Developing Nanobiosensors for Treating Inammatory…
103
[8, 25]
[8, 25]
Graphene-quantum dots, CNT, silver
iron/zinc oxide
AuNP [25, 105]
nanoparticles
[25]
Silver nanoclusters, MB1, MB2, hairpin
oligonucleotide probes
[25]
nanoparticles on bare gold electrode,
2
Carbon nanotubes [25, 107]
nanocomposites
TiO
[25]
[25]
GCE
(continued)
109]
Fluorescein, rhodamine 6G [25, 108,
(cadmium sulphide), reduced GO-based
CNT
Enzymatic sensors, electrochemical,
Electrochemical, uorescent,
Electrochemical, uorescent Ferrocene, gold, silver, platinum, silica/
Inammatory
disease Biomarker(s) Types of nanobiosensor used Nanomaterial present References
1 Type II diabetes Blood glucose/ketone
Sl
no.
Table 3.1 Use of nanobiosensors for diagnosing inammatory diseases of human
Fluorescent, electrochemical,
APOe-4, amyloid beta,
bodies/free fatty acids,
vaspin
2 Alzheimer’s
ELISA or RIA-based immunosensors,
aptamer-based, or voltametric
immunosensors
IL-6, TNF-alpha, IL-1beta,
alpha-1 antitrypsin,
acetylcholine
disease
3 Myocardial
Electrochemical EGO, gold nanowires, SPCE [25, 106]
electrochemical, uorescent
nanosensors, nano aptasensors
C-reactive protein,
Nt-pro-BNP
infarction
4 Parkinson’s disease Alpha-synuclein, miR-195,
immunosensors
CXCL10, TNF a, TGF-b,
dopamine, homovanilic acid
5 Multiple sclerosis IgG index, IL-23, IL-17,
Nanocantilever
ELISA-RIA-based immunosensor,
amperometric, electrochemical
IL-6, IL-8, TNF-alpha,
NY-ESO-1, VOC
N, NGRN; MMP-9
IL-1beta, C cvrwer65567-
reactive protein, cTnI
diseases
7 Cardiovascular
6 Melanoma RNA of cancer cells,
uorescent nanosensors
9 Gastric cancer miR-106a and let-7a Electrochemical AuNP and CdSe (cadmium selenide) CdS
8 Lung cancer miRNA-182 Electrochemical, immunosensors MoS2/Ti3C2 nanohybrids and modied
10 Liver cancer AFP/CEA Electrochemical; immunosensors,
104
A. Chakraborty et al.
[25, 110,
111]
[25, 112]
Surface ligated Ga-Au encapsulated
mesoporous silica, SPIOS, USPIOS,
PNT-modied PGE
nanostructured PANI/GO and AuNR;
ssDNA probe (BRCA1)/PANHS/MWCNT/
GCE
Aptamer-based nanomaterials [112, 113]
cc AuNPs [113]
[8, 114]
/Au nanoparticles, core shell
4
O
2
nanoparticles/silica nanoparticles
11-MUA on Au electrode surface [115, 116]
Fe
Graphene, ZnO [115]
Inammatory
disease Biomarker(s) Types of nanobiosensor used Nanomaterial present References
Sl
no.
Table 3.1 (continued)
Nano immunosensor, magneto-
nanosensor, amperometric sandwich-
type immunosensor
Electrochemical; cyclic voltammetry AuNP-grafted functionalized graphene and
TMPRSS2-ETS
11 Prostate cancer PSA, PCA-3,
12 Breast cancer HER-2, miR-155, BRCA1,
BRCA2, ING-1, NY-BR-1,
B7-H4
Aptamer-based sensors, QCM
biosensors
Immunosensor and electrochemical
sensors
Graphene-based, electrochemical,
cyclic voltametric nanosensors
Immunosensors, electrochemical
sensors
CA 549, CASA, MCA,
MOV-1, TAG 72, B7-H4
HPV DNA
KRAS, CEA, EGF, MLH1,
VIM, SEPT9, PI3K
13 Ovarian cancer CA125, HCG, p53, CEA,
14 Cervical cancer CEA, SCC Ag, CA19-9,
15 Colorectal cancer CpG islands of APC, BRAF,
Graphene-based nanoimmunosensors,
neutrophil-derived enzymes
Immobilized anti-cyclic
16 Periodontitis ODAM, MMP-8, monocyte/
17 Arthritis and
nanorod-based sensors
citrullinated peptide
rheumatoid
arthritis
3 Recent Advancements in Developing Nanobiosensors for Treating Inammatory…
105
benet-cost ratio, development cost of certain nanomaterials is extremely high,
many industries still prefer traditional biosensing platforms and thus, nanomedicine
also struggles to reach out to the outskirts and rural areas [121]. Nanobiosensors are
often highly sensitive to different non-target species in analyte solution due to
unique surface properties of nanomaterials, often leading to generation of false signals. It sometimes becomes absolutely essential to prepare the analytical sample
following rigorous steps for proper purication of target analytes.
Due to their more recent development, most nanobiosensors are not extensively
calibrated against a wide range of analytical species, which makes them not cent per
cent error-free sometimes. Most nanobiosensors are fabricated as to be used once
and then disposed of. This single-use approach in many cases does elevate the cost
as well as poses an environmental risk as well. In-vivo use of nanobiosensors often
opens the door for nanotoxicity as several nanomaterials may be associated with
unknown toxicity proles which will eventually show up with prolonged use.
3.8 Conclusion andFuture Direction
Considering the comparative efcacy of conventional biosensors and nanobiosensors, it is evident that nanobiosensors can provide better sensing ability in the presence of analytes at ultra-low concentrations. Moreover, nanobiosensor technology
particularly seems to be the only option in diagnosing complicated human diseases
wherein collection and availability of samples is a tough task to meet. Recently
employed nanospheres, nanoowers, nanorods, nanotubes, nanoscaffolds alongside
structurally diverse nanoparticles and composites have been found to be extremely
useful in designing the appropriate nanobioconjugates with enzymes and/or antibodies for achieving high degree of accuracy in sensing. However, limited availability of the characterization devices, production cost and infrastructural
requirements are the major setbacks to be overcome in the near future.
Acknowledgement SM acknowledges the University Grants Commission (UGC) (Ref no.
F.2-12/2019) (STRIDE) and KNU-UGC STRIDE (Ref no. KNU/R/STRIDE/1077/21) and
Department of Science and Technology-Science & Engineering Research Board (DST-SERB)
(Ref no. SRG/2021/002605) for supporting his research activities and his research laboratory
through awarding research projects.
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