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5. Discuss the evidence that introversion is biologically based. What are the
implications of this work for personality change? That is, can an introvert become
more extraverted, or vice versa? If so, how might this be accomplished?
Career Connection: Business
Sales
Undergraduate psychology programs help students acquire a wide range of
interpersonal skills, which can be put to use in sales and marketing positions across
the business world. Employers value skills developed in psychology coursework,
such as the ability to speak well and communicate effectively. Specific understanding
of people and human behavior, acquired in courses in social psychology, personality,
and communications, can be especially helpful. Those engaged in market research
may also find their knowledge of the scientific method and data analysis to be
invaluable.
Key skills for this role that psychology students learn to develop:
Enhanced teamwork capacity
Effective communication in presentations and written works
Self-efficacy and self-regulation
Key Terms
cognitive social-learning theory (p. 319)
collective unconscious (p. 314)
conditional positive regard (p. 326)
defense mechanisms (p. 312)
denial (p. 312)
ego (p. 309)
extravert (p. 338)
five-factor model (p. 335)
fixation (p. 311)
humanistic theory (p. 326)
id (p. 309)
identification (p. 310)
introvert (p. 338)
locus of control (p. 323)
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) (p. 350)
modeling (p. 321)
Oedipus complex (p. 310)
peak experience (p. 332)
personality (p. 305)
pleasure principle (p. 309)
projection (p. 313)
projective tests (p. 315)
psychoanalysis (p. 308)
psychosexual stages (p. 309)
rationalization (p. 313)
reaction formation (p. 313)
reality principle (p. 309)
reciprocal determinism (p. 325)
repression (p. 312)
Rorschach (p. 315)
self-actualization (p. 326)
self-discrepancy theory (p. 330)
self-efficacy (p. 324)
self-esteem (p. 327)
self-schemas (p. 327)
sublimation (p. 313)
superego (p. 309)
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (p. 316)
traits (p. 335)
unconditional positive regard (p. 326)
Descriptions of Images and Figures
Back to Figure
Freud divided the mind into the conscious mind, preconscious mind, and the
unconscious mind. The latter was then further divided into the id, or instincts and
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drive, and the superego, the conscience.
Freud proposed a vertical and hierarchical architecture of human consciousness:
the conscious mind, the preconscious, and the unconscious mind.
The diagram illustrates Freud’s theories by using an iceberg analogy. The iceberg
is divided into 3 sections as follows.
1. The left half of the iceberg is labeled, the Superego.
2. The upper right quarter of the iceberg is labeled, the Ego.
3. The lower right quarter of the iceberg is labeled, the Id.
The upper quarter of the iceberg is visible above the surface of the water. The
area above the surface represents the Conscious Mind. The area just below the
surface represents the Preconscious Mind. The area of deeper ocean is labeled, the
Unconscious Mind.
The Conscious Mind, Preconscious Mind, and Unconscious Mind, are defined as
follows.
1. The Conscious Mind. The conscious mind contains all of the thoughts,
memories, feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at any given moment. For
example, current thoughts and perceptions.
2. The Preconscious Mind. The preconscious mind consists of anything that
could potentially be brought into the conscious mind. Latent parts of the brain
that are readily available to the conscious mind, although not currently in use.
For example, memories and stored knowledge.
3. The Unconscious Mind. The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings,
thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness.
The unconscious contains contents that are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as
feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. For example, sexual and aggressive
instincts, and fears such as unacceptable sexual desires, selfish needs,
traumatic experiences, and irrational wishes.
The 3 parts of the psyche are the Id, the Ego, and the Superego. These elements
are defined as follows.
1. The Id is the primitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains sexual
and aggressive drives and hidden memories. The id is the impulsive and
unconscious part of our psyche which responds directly and immediately to basic
urges, needs, and desires. The Id operates on the basis of the pleasure
principle.
2. The Superego operates as a moral conscience. The superego's function is to
control the id's impulses, especially those which society forbids, such as sex and
aggression. The Superego operates on the basis of the perfection principle.
3. The Ego is the realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and
the super-ego. It is the decision-making component of personality. The Ego
operates on the basis of the reality principle.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. In psychoanalysis, unconscious sexual
and aggressive impulses find acceptable forms of expression.
The flowchart is divided into 2 sections. Section 1, on the left, is titled,
Unconscious needs and wishes. Section 2, on the right, is titled, Conscious
manifestations or outlets. The sections contain the following information.
Section 1. Unconscious needs and wishes.
A dark blue box is labeled, Sexual, aggressive, and other unacceptable impulses.
5 left to right arrows lead to 5 boxes in Section 2.
Section 2. Conscious manifestations or outlets.
5 dark blue boxes are stacked one above the other. They are labeled as follows,
from top to bottom.
1. Dreams.
2. Jokes.
3. Slips of the tongue.
4. Sublimation.
5. Anxiety symptoms.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. According to psychoanalytically oriented
psychologists, what you see in this inkblot, and how you see it, can be used to
assess your personality.
The image shows an example of a Rorschach inkblot psychodiagnostic test card.
The image is perfectly symmetrical and contains blotches of red, blue, green, orange,
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gray, and yellow ink on white paper. The viewer can interpret the image in a myriad of
different ways, for instance, as a devilish head or as a human pelvis.
According to Damion Searls, Rorschach’s inkblots were painstakingly crafted
designs, refined through much clinical trial and error to give them the appearance of
naturalness. There is no trace of the artist’s hand in the thickness of the brushstrokes
or the shading of the ink, nothing to rouse suspicion among Rorschach’s paranoid
patients that the inkblot had been created to elicit a particular response from them.
There are no captions, no border, nothing to distract respondents from the lines, the
curves, or the colors. The aim of the inkblot was that its aesthetic impersonality would
reveal the personality of its viewer.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. This ambiguous picture is used in the
Thematic Apperception Test.
The illustration features a family of chimpanzees sitting in their living room. In the
foreground a female chimpanzee, an earring in her ear, sits on a footstool and
instructs a young chimpanzee, who is standing on the floor and looking up at her. In
the background, a male chimpanzee sits on a flower-patterned sofa holding a teacup
to his lips as he listens to a female chimpanzee sitting beside him. She is leaning
over to him and whispering behind her hand. She has a flower tucked behind her ear
and is also holding a cup and saucer. On the wall behind them is a portrait of an old
female chimpanzee.
Back to Figure
The flowchart contains 3 dark blue boxes positioned in a triangular shape. The
boxes are connected by left-right arrows, indicating that each element has an
influence on the other elements. The flowchart develops as follows.
1. Box 1 is positioned in the upper left hand angle of the triangle and is labeled,
Person.
2. Box 2 is positioned in the upper right hand angle of the triangle and is
labeled, Environment.
3. Box 3 is positioned in the lower angle of the triangle and is labeled, Behavior.
The flowchart suggests that each of the elements, Person, Environment, and
Behavior all influence each other. This is the concept of Reciprocal Determinism.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. According to Rogers, the needs for self-
actualization and positive regard present a potential for conflict. Unconditional
positive regard permits self-actualization, but conditional positive regard can result in
self-discrepancies.
The flowchart consists of 3 main sections and develops from left to right as
follows.
Section 1. Basic Human Needs. These include the following 2 elements.
1. Need for self-actualization.
2. Need for positive regard.
Two arrows lead from Section 1 to the 2 boxes in Section 2 and create 2
pathways.
Section 2. Other Responses. These include the following 2 elements.
1. Pathway 1. Unconditional positive regard.
2. Pathway 2. Conditional positive regard.
Two arrows lead from Section 2 to the 2 boxes in Section 3 and complete the 2
pathways.
Section 3. Result. These include the following 2 elements.
1. Pathway 1. Self-actualization. Self-actualization results from unconditional
positive regard.
2. Pathway 2. Self-discrepancies. Self-discrepancies lead from conditional
positive regard.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. Through a longitudinal study, Erol and
Orth in 2011 found that Hispanic American adolescents score lower on self-esteem
than white Americans and Black Americans but score higher on self-esteem tests
relative to white Americans by age 30. By age 30, Black Americans scored the
highest.
The ages in years are plotted on the X-axis, ranging from age 14 to age 30, at
intervals of 1 year. The self-esteem score is plotted on the Y-axis, with a range from
minus 0.5 to plus 0.5, at intervals of 0.25.
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The self-esteem of Blacks and whites differed only a little at age 14, difference
equals 0.03, but self-esteem of Hispanics was lower than self-esteem of Blacks,
difference equals 0.21 and whites, difference equals 0.18. Self-esteem increased
gradually for all ethnicities, except for a slight decline among whites from age 26 to
age 30. However, the self-esteem of Hispanic and Black participants increased more
sharply than that of white participants. By age 30, the self-esteem of whites was
lower than the self-esteem of Blacks, difference equals minus 0.24, and Hispanics,
difference equals minus 0.09.
The starting and ending data points for each group are presented in the following
table.
Back to Figure
The flowchart contains 3 stages and develops from left to right as follows.
Stage 1. A green box labeled, Self-discrepancies. Two arrows lead from left to
right and create 2 separate pathways.
Stage 2, Self Guides. The Self Guides stage is split into 2 pathways and contains
2 boxes as follows.
The upper, dark blue box is labeled, Self is not equal to ideals. This is the first
step in Pathway 1. The ideal self is your representation of the attributes that
someone, yourself or another, would like you, ideally, to possess.
The lower, light blue box is labeled, Self is not equal to oughts. This is the first
step in Pathway 2. An ought is your representation of the attributes that
someone, either yourself or another, believes you should or ought to possess.
Stage 3, Mental Health Effects. The Mental Health Effects stage contains 2 boxes
and concludes Pathway 1 and Pathway 2 as follows.
The upper, dark blue box is labeled, Sadness, Disappointment, and
Depression. This is the final step in Pathway 1.
The lower, light blue box is labeled, Anxiety, Shame, and Guilt. This is the
final step in Pathway 2.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. According to Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, a
state of flow arises when we engage in activities that we are skilled at and at levels
that are challenging but not too difficult.
The matrix style diagram contains 2 axes. The X-axis is labeled Skills and ranges
from low on the left end of the axis to high on the right end of the axis. The Y-axis is
labeled, Challenges, and ranges from low at the bottom end of the axis to high at the
top end of the axis. The area of the matrix is divided into 4 sections. Two diagonal
lines divide the area into 3 diagonal sections and a single horizontal line divides the
middle, diagonal section into 2 halves, upper and lower. The 4 resulting sections are
labeled as follows.
1. Upper diagonal. This section is labeled Anxiety and has the characteristics of
Low Skill and High Challenge.
2. The upper middle diagonal. This section is labeled Flow and has the
characteristics of High Skill and High Challenge.
3. The lower middle diagonal. This section is labeled Apathy and has the
characteristics of Low Skill and Low Challenge.
4. Lower diagonal. This section is labeled, Boredom and has the characteristics
of High Skill and Low Challenge.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. In a recall task by designed by Andrew
Smith of Cardiff University in 2012, extraverted participants performed best with
caffeine, whereas introverted participants performed best without caffeine.
The 4 subject types are plotted on the X axis. These are as follows.
1. Extravert with no caffeine.
2. Introvert with no caffeine.
3. Extravert with caffeine.
4. Introvert with caffeine.
The total recalled correctly during the test by each subject type are plotted on the
Y-axis, with a range from 17 to 22.
The estimated adjusted mean score data points are presented in the following
table, together with the standard deviations which are represented as bars on the bar
chart.
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9 LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT AND ITS CONTEXTS
iStock.com/monkeybusinessimages
Learning Objectives
Describe genes and the role they play in behavior.
Identify the three stages of prenatal development and describe the
complexities of fertility.
Describe the abilities that a newborn infant can demonstrate and the
adaptive significance of their preferences.
Describe biological, cognitive, and social development during
childhood.
Explain the importance and challenges of making the transition to
adolescence.
Describe the physical and cognitive changes that are evident in
adulthood and old age.
WHAT’S YOUR PREDICTION: HOW OLD DO
PEOPLE FEEL?
The Situation
You know that people change as they get older, for better and for worse, and that
development is a lifelong process. At the same time, you’ve heard it said that “age is
a state of mind” and that “you’re only as old as you feel.” Hmm, you wonder. To what
extent do people feel their chronological age? As children, did we tend to feel older
than we were, or younger? How do we feel in relation to our age as adults?
Imagine that you are a developmental psychologist. To answer this question, you
need to ask people to tell you how old they feel. So you devise a questionnaire in
which you ask respondents to write down their actual age and then to specify how old
they feel, how old they look, how old they behave, and so on. You realize that you
need to survey people of different ages, so you recruit high school and college
students, faculty members from your university, adults taking part in an educational
workshop, and local senior citizen centers. You send out 298 questionnaires, and 188
are completed and returned. Those who participate range in age from 14 to 83.
Make a Prediction
By averaging each respondent’s answers to various “how old do you feel”
questions, you can calculate the person’s “subjective-age identity.” So what do you
think you’d find? How old do you feel? Review Figure 9.1. Using a separate
document, create a similar graph to plot your predictions. The diagonal line in the
figure illustrates the pattern you would expect if subjective ages were identical to
chronological ages—in other words, if people felt exactly as young or old as they truly
were. If you think that this is what happened, then all you have to do is trace over that
existing line. Otherwise, use it as a guide and (without looking at Figure 9.2) put an X
at the age felt by the average 15-year-old, and then do the same for those at the
ages of 25, 35, 45, 55, 65, 75, and 85. If you think that people in a particular age
group feel younger than they are, place the X below the existing line. If you think they
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feel older, put the X above the line. Connect the Xs and you’ll have your predicted
subjective-age line.
Description
Figure 9.1 The Pattern Expected If Subjective Ages Were Identical to
Chronological Ages
The Results
Based on research suggesting that life satisfaction has more to do with subjective
age than with chronological age, Joann Montepare and Margie Lachman (1989)
conducted the study just described. As shown, the results are plotted alongside the
comparison line in Figure 9.2. So how did you do? The figure illustrates three
interesting findings: (a) Teenagers in general feel older than they are; (b) adults feel
younger; and (c) the tendency for adults to feel younger becomes more pronounced
with advancing age; and this is still just as true today (Westerhof et al., 2014).
What Does It All Mean?
One of the most important and recurring questions in developmental psychology
concerns the extent to which people change over the course of a lifetime, particularly
during the adult years. We’ll learn in this chapter that development is a lifelong
process in which we change—physically, cognitively, and socially—as we get older.
We’ll also learn, however, that in other respects each of us is the same person today
that we were five years ago and will remain that person five years from now. In this
context, Montepare and Lachman’s (1989) study and others since then (Westerhof et
al., 2014) show, at least to some extent, that we age less in our minds than we do on
the clock.
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Description
Figure 9.2 Subjective Age by Age and Gender
When it comes to understanding people, it often seems that playwrights,
philosophers, poets, and artists are a step ahead of the rest of us. In the seventh
century BCE, the Greek poet Solon described nine stages in human development,
beginning in the cradle and ending in the grave. Then, in roughly 500 BCE, the
Chinese philosopher Confucius described six life phases spanning the ages of 15 to
70. At the end of the 16th century, William Shakespeare immortalized his vision of
seven life stages. And in Sweden, an unnamed artist depicted the ages of man and
woman in 10-decade pyramids that peak at the age of 50. In some cultures, the
human life span is pictured as a straight line. In others, it is thought of as a circle,
spiral, square, or change of seasons (Kotre & Hall, 1990).
To begin understanding human development, it is important first to look at our very
nature, and how it is nurtured. Consider, for example, Laila Amaria Ali—a former
professional boxer, and the daughter of legendary boxing champion Muhammad Ali
(refer to Figure 9.3). She became a boxing legend of her own, defeating some of the
most prominent names in women’s boxing. In a little over eight years she amassed a
24–0 record, including 21 knockouts; winning four super middleweight titles and one
light heavyweight title before retiring in 2007. Why was she so successful? Is it so
simple as who her father was? Many great athletes have children who never become
great athletes themselves. These are the types of presumptions that do not capture
the complexities of development and all the diversity and richness of our experiences.
Figure 9.3 Muhammad and Laila Ali
Laila Amaria Ali with her father, Muhammad Ali, as a child and as a
champion. Laila became a legendary boxer—like father, like daughter.
The Stanley Weston Archive / Contributor/Archive Photos/Getty
Images; Ed Mulholland / Contributor/WireImage/Getty Images
The Alis are not the only example. Many examples can be found in and out of
sports. Award-winning actress Gwyneth Paltrow is the daughter of award-winning
actress Blythe Danner. Football legend Archie Manning, who played 13 years in the
NFL, is father to two football greats: Hall of Famer Peyton Manning and his brother
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Eli Manning—both are two-time Super Bowl champions. Wallflowers musician Jakob
Dylan is the son of rock legend Bob Dylan, and country singer Wynonna Judd is the
daughter of country singer Naomi Judd. Even in politics, there is former president
George W. Bush, son of former president George H. W. Bush. Think for just a few
moments, and you’re sure to come up with other examples. With all of these
examples of talent seemingly passed down from parents to children, it seems there is
quite a promising career ahead for, say, Blue Ivy—daughter of superstars Beyoncé
and Jay Z.
At first glance, the resemblances in these examples seem striking. But do they
illustrate a rule or exceptions to a rule? What, if anything, do they tell us about human
development? One possible conclusion is that the similarities are built into nature and
that these famous sons and daughters are chips off the old blocks because of genetic
similarity to their parents. But, wait. These famous offspring also likely share lived
experiences with their parents, such as where they were raised, many aspects of
their home environment, the foods they were exposed to, seeing firsthand their
parents’ careers, and learning from these experiences. In this chapter, we look at the
complexities of development across the life span—from your genetic makeup (nature)
to your lived social, psychological, and physical experiences (nurture) that make you,
well, you.
GENES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe genes and the role they play in behavior.
Discuss the areas included in the study of developmental psychology and
genetics.
Explain what genes are and how they work.
Summarize how genes are passed from parent to offspring.
Inheriting the wisdom of past generations, psychologists view human
development as a lifelong process. The study of developmental psychology thus
examines the kinds of questions that parents ask about their offspring and that all of
us ask about ourselves: How do individuals change as they get older? Will an infant
with a precocious smile become a sociable adult? Is the early-walking toddler a future
athlete? Is the preschooler who clings to mom fated to become a dependent spouse?
And is the overly anxious college student doomed to a life of anxiety? Focusing on
the extent to which development is characterized by stability or change, in this
chapter we explore the genetic—and then the biological, cognitive, and social—
aspects of development across the life span, from conception through infancy,
childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age.
developmental psychology. The study of how people grow, mature, and change
over the life span.
Ultimately, the recipe for our existence is coded in our genes. Genes are the
biological units of heredity. They copy themselves, they pass from parent to offspring,
and they play a key role in the development of individuals and species. The study of
genetics is in the news a lot lately—in part because, now that scientists have
mapped the entire sequence of human genes, they can identify genetic markers of
disease; in part because crime investigators are using “DNA prints” to identify
criminals and exonerate the innocent; in part because of cloning and the intense
ethical controversies that swirl around this technology; and in part because of
companies like 23andMe, which can provide DNA sequencing to anyone to inform
them not only about their ancestry but also about their genetically based health risks.
So, what are genes, how do they work, and how do they make us both similar to each
other and different?
genes. The biochemical units of heredity that govern the development of an
individual life.
genetics. The branch of biology that deals with the mechanisms of heredity.
What Genes Are and How They Work
On this planet at least, cells are the basic working units of every organism. There
are trillions of cells within the body of a human or other animal. Within the nucleus of
every cell, except for red blood cells, is a copy of the organism’s genetic blueprint.
Each human nucleus contains 46 tiny rodlike structures called chromosomes,
arranged in 23 pairs. For purposes of communication, geneticists have numbered
these chromosomes 1, 2, 3, and so on, from the largest to the smallest. Thus, we
each have two versions, or paired members, of chromosome 1, two versions of
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chromosome 2, and on down the line. The two members of a chromosome pair are
not identical because one was donated by your biological mother, the other by your
biological father (illustrated in Figure 9.4).
chromosomes. Rodlike structures, found in all biological cells, that contain DNA
molecules in the form of genes
Description
Figure 9.4 Human Chromosomes
iStock.com/somersault18:24
Each chromosome consists of tightly coiled strands of large molecules of the
substance deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. These molecules can be found in the
sperm and egg cells that join to form a new being, and they replicate themselves over
the course of development. Within each DNA molecule are segments called genes—
long, stringy, self-replicating molecules that contain instructions to synthesize
proteins, the building blocks of life, and thereby provide the biochemical basis for
heredity. To the extent that a characteristic is biologically inherited, it is inherited
through genes. The normal human complement of some tens of thousands of genes
is thus grouped into 46 chromosomes. Remember that your chromosomes come in
23 pairs, so your genes are represented in 35,000 pairs.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The complex molecular structure of a
chromosome that carries genetic information.
One of the crowning achievements of 20th century science was the discovery by
James Watson and Francis Crick (1953) of what genes are and how they work.
Thanks in part to their pioneering work, we now know that genes contain a
biochemical recipe written in code. We also know that genes perform two essential
tasks: They make copies of themselves that are transmitted over the course of
generations, in principle, forever; and they direct the assembly of organisms, like us.
Genes are composed of subunits of DNA. In total, there are four DNA bases, or
nucleotides: adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine, typically referred to by their
initial letters A, G, T, and C. As you’ll learn shortly, these four “letters” of the genetic
alphabet come together in various combinations, producing a twisted DNA ladder that
looks like a spiral staircase. These genetic building blocks are summarized in Figure
9.5.
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Description
Figure 9.5 Genetic Building Blocks
iStock.com/ttsz
Genetic Building Blocks
Life begins when a male sperm cell—one of the hundreds of millions released into
the Fallopian tube during intercourse—is united with a female’s ovum, or egg cell.
The fertilized ovum then forms a barrier that blocks the entry of other sperm. In the
meantime, the nuclei of the male and female cells move toward each other, fusing
within hours into a single, brand new cell. This fusion marks the beginning of a new
life, genetically endowed by a mother and a father. Right from the start, this single cell
has a full genetic heritage contained within the 23 pairs of chromosomes—half
carried in the mother’s ovum, and half in the father’s sperm. As we saw earlier, each
of the 46 chromosomes contains strands of DNA. In turn, each DNA molecule is
made up of thousands of genes, the biochemical building blocks of an individual life.
Like a photograph that has already been taken but not yet developed, genes
determine our skin color, height, weight, blood type, certain behavioral dispositions,
as well as medical and psychological disorders. All humans have certain genes in
common, which is why we all can walk and talk—but not fly, bark, or breathe
underwater. At the same time, unless you are one of two identical twins or one of
three triplets, you have a distinct combination of genes that makes you unique among
all past, present, and future human beings. The 23rd pair of chromosomes
determines your sex. Whereas everyone receives an X chromosome from the
mother, there is an equal chance that the father will contribute an X or Y chromosome
to the pair. If it is X, the offspring will be female (XX); if it is Y, it will be male (XY).
Assuming no anomalies occur, which are rare, the biological sex of a child thus
depends on the father’s contribution.
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Identify the three stages of prenatal development and describe the complexities of
fertility.
Summarize the three stages of prenatal development.
Identify the stage of prenatal development in which sexual differentiation
occurs, and explain what it determines.
Define fertility and elaborate on how it changes over the life span.
Recognizing that the passage from the womb into the outside world is a profound
one, Westerners celebrate the birthday as the starting point in a person’s
development. In fact, birth is not so much a beginning as it is a transition. The real
beginning occurs nine months earlier, at the moment of conception. That is why the
Chinese calculate age from that moment and consider the baby to be a 1-year-old at
birth. In cross-sectional studies, subjects of different ages are examined at the same
time and compared for differences. In longitudinal studies, the same subjects are
tested at different times in order to measure change.
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