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fixation. In psychoanalysis, a tendency to get “locked in” at early, immature
stages of psychosexual development.
Oral. If you were weaned too early or too late as an infant, you would
become fixated at the oral stage and feel the need to smoke, drink, bite your
nails, chew on pencils, or spend hours talking on the phone. You might also seek
symbolic forms of oral gratification by becoming passive, dependent, and
demanding—like a nursing infant.
Anal. If, as a toddler, you were toilet trained in a harsh and rigid manner, you
would become anally fixated and react in one of two ways—either by becoming
tight, stubborn, punctual, and overcontrolled (the holding-on, “anal-retentive”
type) or by becoming rebellious, messy, and disorganized (the letting-go, “analexpulsive” type).
Phallic. If you masturbated freely during the preschool years or if all genital
contact was prohibited, resulting in frustration, you would develop a phallic
personality—one that is entirely self-centered, vain, arrogant, and in constant
need of attention. The man who seems obsessed with building his wealth, is
power hungry, must wear expensive clothing and drive a fancy car, and is
constantly trying to conquer women is a classic example.
The Dynamics of Personality
Influenced by the science of physics, Freud believed that the human mind has a
constant, finite amount of “psychic energy”—energy that cannot be created or
destroyed, only transformed from one state to another. What this means for
personality is that even though the id’s instinctual impulses can be suppressed
temporarily, its energy must find an outlet, a way to leak out. According to Freud, the
ego searches for safe and normal outlets for these needs.
In Freud’s theory, the dreams you remember in the morning are a disguised,
nonthreatening expression of your unconscious wishes. Pent-up energy is released
while you’re asleep, but in ways that are confusing and, therefore, nonthreatening.
The same is true of the so-called Freudian slips of the tongue and, as we’ll read later,
a defense mechanism known as sublimation. Even humor can serve as an outlet, as
when people tell ethnic jokes to relieve hostile impulses and erotic jokes to ease their
sexual tension. Disguised wish fulfillment is the compromise we strike with ourselves,
as illustrated in Figure 8.3.
Description
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Figure 8.3 The Psychodynamics of Personality
To help minimize the anxiety that results from the clash between our wishes,
morals, and reality, the ego uses powerful weapons: unconscious defense
mechanisms that deny and distort our self-perceptions. Here are some common
defense mechanisms described by Freud. Can you recognize any of them?
defense mechanisms. Unconscious methods of minimizing anxiety by denying
and distorting reality.
Repression occurs when anxiety-provoking thoughts and memories are
“forgotten” and pushed out of awareness. Freud believed that people repress
unacceptable sexual and aggressive urges, traumas, and guilt feelings. Nicole
Kluemper (formerly Taus) became a famous case of trauma-induced repression.
As a child, Nicole received treatment from a psychologist, Dr. David Corwin. He
filmed the treatment and found it to be educational. Thus, Corwin asked 17-yearold Nicole if he could use the films for training purposes. Nicole gave her
permission, but for personal reasons requested she see the footage—and it
would be her first time seeing it. Before proceeding, Corwin asked Nicole what
she remembered. At first, she remembered nothing. When Corwin mentioned
allegations of sexual abuse, Nicole described an incident with her mother in a
bathtub. Nicole’s filmed childhood testimony to Corwin corroborated her recalled
memory. Corwin and Olafson (1997) published the case study in an academic
journal, which later was scrutinized by Elizabeth Loftus and Melvin Guyer (2002).
Their scrutiny made its way to the Supreme Court of California and has been the
subject of an ethical debate ever since (Cheit, 2014; Dalenberg, 2014; Olafson,
2014).
Nicole Kluemper’s case study spurred an ethical debate. As a patient who
believed in her claims of sexual abuse, Nicole felt slandered when psychologists
openly criticized her repressed memory. Now, inspired by Dr. David Corwin and
her own experiences, Nicole works with children who have mental health issues
and experience trauma (Watt, 2017).
iStock.com/Eshma
Denial is a primitive form of repression in which anxiety-filled external events
not only are forgotten but also are barred from awareness in the first place (see
no evil, hear no evil). Denial is common among terminally ill patients and in
families that sometimes refuse to admit that a loved one is dying. It is also
characteristic of smokers who refuse to recognize the health risks of their habit,
partners who ignore signs of conflict, and politicians who manage to overlook
corruption that takes place right under their noses.
Projection occurs when people attribute or “project” their own unacceptable
impulses onto others. In Freud’s view, a person who is sexually attracted to a
friend’s spouse, or to anyone else who is “off limits,” might repress those feelings
and consciously come to believe that the friend’s spouse is attracted to them. In
this way, “I lust for this person” is transformed into “This person lusts after me.”
Similarly, people who are prejudiced against certain racial or ethnic groups are
quick to attribute their own hostile impulses to “them.”
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Reaction formation involves converting an unacceptable feeling into its
opposite. Someone who brags may be masking feelings of inadequacy. Similarly,
hatred can be transformed into love, and sadness into joy. Compared to true
feelings, reaction formations often appear exaggerated. Examples include the
father who smothers with affection a child he privately resents, the administrator
who goes out of his way to prevent sexual harassment in the workplace but
secretly has an affair with his subordinate, and the vocal antigay activist who
fights to cover up his own homosexual impulses.
Rationalization involves making excuses for one’s failures and
shortcomings. The fox in Aesop’s fable who refused the grapes he could not
reach “because they were sour” used rationalization. So do failing students who
say they don’t really care about their grades, gamblers who justify their massive
losses as entertainment costs, and deceptive lovers who find fault with their
partner as an excuse to cheat.
Sublimation is the channeling of the id’s repressed urges into socially
acceptable substitute outlets. Freud saw this as the healthiest defense
mechanism because it represents a genuine compromise among the id, ego, and
superego. Thus, a person with pent-up hostile impulses may derive satisfaction
by becoming a surgeon, football player, or critic. Similarly, a person may
sublimate sexual needs by listening to others talk about sex or through music,
art, dance, and other activities. Freud believed that civilization’s greatest
achievements spring from the wells of sexual and aggressive energies.
repression. A defense mechanism in which personally threatening thoughts,
memories, and impulses are banned from awareness.
denial. A primitive form of repression in which anxiety-filled external events are
barred from awareness.
projection. A defense mechanism in which people attribute or “project” their own
unacceptable impulses onto others.
reaction formation. A defense mechanism in which one converts an
unacceptable feeling into its opposite.
rationalization. A defense mechanism that involves making excuses for one’s
failures and shortcomings.
sublimation. The channeling of repressed sexual and aggressive urges into
socially acceptable substitute outlets.
Freud’s Legacy
Freud was born and raised in the prudish Victorian era, so his theory was met with
skepticism. Unconscious conflicts, dreams, jokes, and slips of the tongue that hold
hidden meaning; erotic impulses churning in the innocent newborn baby; repression
and other defense mechanisms that keep us from falling apart—it all seemed pretty
wild at the time. Still, Freud’s legacy is remarkable. As we’ll learn, his ideas gave rise
to other psychoanalytic theories and a whole class of personality tests. He also
provided something for psychologists of other theoretical persuasions to aim at—and
build upon.
Neo-Freudian Theorists
Despite the controversy, Freud’s emerging theory immediately attracted a group of
followers, many of whom went on to propose competing theories. But these
dissenters were psychoanalytically oriented nonetheless. Following Freud, they
assumed that unconscious factors play a critical role, that people need to resolve
inner conflicts, and that personality is formed early in childhood. The main sticking
point was—and still is, for many—Freud’s emphasis on sex as a driving force.
Carl Jung, heir apparent to the throne of psychoanalysis, was a favorite within
Freud’s inner circle. However, Jung (1928) complained that Freud viewed the brain
“as an appendage to the genital glands,” and he sought to change the theory in two
ways. First, Jung maintained that the unconscious consists not only of repressed
material from one’s personal life but also of universal symbols and memories from our
ancestral past—an inherited collective unconscious. That’s why, said Jung, so
many humans are born with an irrational fear of snakes; why we’re drawn like
magnets to fire, water, wind, and other natural elements; and why certain common
themes appear in cultural myths and legends around the world. Jung’s second shift in
emphasis concerned the subject of personality development. He agreed that people
strive for the satisfaction of biological drives. But he also felt that at the age of 40 or
so, we undergo a midlife transition, a time during which the youthful and vigorous
pursuit of biological needs is replaced by deeper, more cerebral, even spiritual
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concerns. As far as Jung was concerned, personality development continues into
adulthood.
collective unconscious. As proposed by Jung, a kind of memory bank that
stores images and ideas that humans have accumulated over the course of evolution.
Carl Jung
World History Archive / Alamy Stock Photo
Alfred Adler was another major theorist within Freud’s inner circle. Like the others,
Adler was trained in medicine. He broke with Freud, however, because he felt that
personality was formed more from social conflicts than from sexual tension.
According to Adler (1927), all humans feel small, helpless, and weak in the first few
years of life, symptoms of what he termed an inferiority complex. As a result, we grow
up trying unconsciously to compensate for these feelings and strive for superiority,
while at the same time taking an interest in the welfare of others. Adler felt that Freud
was so focused on the triangle of relationships among mother, father, and child that
he neglected other family influences. Adler wrote, for example, about the impact of
being first-, middle-, or later-born within the family, and he coined the term sibling
rivalry.
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Alfred Adler
Lebrecht Music & Arts / Alamy Stock Photo
Later generations of psychoanalytic theorists either viewed themselves as
classical Freudians (Brenner, 1982) or extended the theory in two directions. One
group followed in Adler’s path by emphasizing that humans are inherently social
animals. Erich Fromm (1941) maintained that as Western civilization abandoned the
caste system, people felt freer and more independent but also more alone and
isolated. Fromm argued that we unconsciously seek to “escape from freedom” by
falling in love, getting married, having children, joining religious groups, and rallying
behind powerful leaders. What distinguishes individuals from one another, he
proposed, are the ways in which they resolve the conflict between freedom and unity.
Karen Horney (1945) similarly claimed that all humans need love and security and
become highly anxious when they feel isolated and alone. She was one of the first to
recognize the impact culture had on mental health (1936), and gave a voice to
women in psychology (Horney, 1935; Horney, 1967; O’Connell, 1980). According to
Horney, people have different ways of coping with this anxiety: Some are
unconsciously driven to be loved, others to be feared, and still others to be admired.
Again, the goal is to satisfy needs that are social, not biological. Horney was
outspoken about her critiques of Freud—so outspoken she was forced to resign from
the New York Psychoanalytic Institute in 1941.
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Karen Horney, unlike Freud, believed in life’s ability to act as a therapist. She is
quoted as saying, “Fortunately, analysis is not the only way to resolve inner conflicts.
Life itself still remains a very effective therapist.”
Bettmann / Contributor/Bettmann/Getty Images
A second group of psychoanalysts known as ego psychologists enlarged the role
of the ego in personality. For Freud, the ego existed in order to accommodate the id
and yet operate within the boundaries of reality, appease the superego, and ward off
anxiety through the use of defense mechanisms. But according to daughter Anna
Freud, Heinz Hartmann, David Rapaport, Erik Erikson, and other theorists, the ego is
more than simply the id’s brainy assistant. In their view, the ego is present at birth, is
as basic as the id, and is the reason why people are thoughtful as well as passionate.
This ego helps to organize our thoughts, feelings, and memories, and it leads us to
grow and pursue creative activities for the sake of enjoyment, not simply the
reduction of tension. As ego psychologist Robert White (1975) put it, “Human beings
have intrinsic urges which make them want to grow up.”
Projective Personality Tests
Psychoanalysis is founded on the assumption that meaningful parts of one’s
personality are locked away in an unconscious part of the mind. This means that one
cannot truly get to know someone by asking direct questions. Searching for the key to
this warehouse of personal secrets, Freud tried hypnosis, free association, and the
interpretation of dreams—the “royal road to the unconscious.” Is it possible to explore
the mind without psychotherapy? Seeking a shortcut to the unconscious,
psychoanalytic researchers and practitioners devised what’s known as projective
tests. A projective test asks people to respond to an ambiguous stimulus—a word
out of context, an incomplete sentence, an inkblot, a fuzzy picture. The assumption
they make is that if a stimulus has no inherent meaning and can accommodate a
multitude of interpretations, then whatever people see must be a projection of their
own needs, wishes, hopes, fears, and conflicts.
projective tests. Psychoanalytic personality tests that allow people to “project”
unconscious needs, wishes, and conflicts onto ambiguous stimuli.
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The most popular of the projective tests is the Rorschach, introduced in 1921 by
Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach, which consists of a set of 10 symmetrical
inkblots—some in color, others in black and white. Figure 8.4 presents an example of
a colored inkblot. In it you might see a bouquet of flowers. Or two green seahorses.
Or a butterfly. You might see a single large image, or you might dissect the inkblot
into many smaller images. In fact, the examiner is interested not only in what you see
but also in how you approach the task—whether you take 2 seconds per card or 5
minutes; whether you’re sensitive to form or to color; and whether the images you
report are common or uncommon.
rorschach. A projective personality test in which people are asked to report what
they see in a set of inkblots.
Description
Figure 8.4 Sample Rorschach Card
Science & Society Picture Library / Contributor/SSPL/Getty Images
Over the years, many elaborate systems have been developed for scoring the
Rorschach, which is still widely used in clinical practice. Critics cite two problems with
this test. The first is that it lacks reliability, which means that two examiners often
reach different conclusions from the same set of responses. The second is that the
test lacks validity, which means that it does not discriminate well among groups
known to have different personalities. In a scathing critique, Robyn Dawes (1994)
called the Rorschach a “shoddy” instrument and suggested that it “is not a valid test
of anything” (p. 146).
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Hermann Rorschach’s background in art helped him develop his famous set of
inkblots. Rorschach’s career was shortened by his death at age 37.
Heritage Images / Contributor/Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Despite these criticisms, Rorschach users are now becoming more sophisticated.
Using past research, John Exner, Jr. (1993) developed a computerized scoring
system. Studies have shown that, as a general rule, higher levels of reliability and
validity are reached now than in the past (Czopp & Zeligman, 2016)—but that these
levels are not ideal (Garb, Florio, & Grove, 1998; Mihura, Meyer, Dumitrascu, &
Bombel, 2013). According to many Rorschach users, however, skillful examiners can
employ the test to understand how people think and to explore depths of personality
that do not otherwise surface in questionnaires, interviews, or observations of
behavior (Exner, 1996). In fact, one group of researchers has used the Rorschach
and Exner’s Rorschach Comprehensive System in a successful attempt to predict
posttraumatic stress disorder (Arnon, Maoz, Gazit, & Klein, 2011). Another group of
researchers argues that narcissism can be assessed using the Rorschach (Gritti,
Marino, Lang, & Meyer, 2017). To this day, researchers are split in their opinions and
continue to debate the value of this inkblot test as a measure of personality (Gacono,
Gacono, & Evans, 2008; Hunsley & Bailey, 2001; Wood et al., 2010).
A second popular projective instrument is the Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT), introduced by Henry Murray. In 1938, Murray formulated a personality theory
that distinguishes people by the kinds of psychological needs that motivate their
behavior—such as the needs for power, achievement, nurturance, and affiliation. To
measure these needs, Murray (1943) developed a set of drawings of characters in
ambiguous situations (plus one blank card, the ultimate projective test!) and asked
subjects to tell a story about the “hero.” Figure 8.5 offers an example. What’s going
on in the drawing? Who are the characters, and what’s their relationship? What led
up to this situation, and how will it all turn out? The possibilities are limitless—like a
blank page awaiting your personal signature.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). A projective personality test in which people
are asked to make up stories from a set of ambiguous pictures.
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p g p
Description
Figure 8.5 Sample TAT picture
Science Source/Science Source
The TAT is based on the assumption that people identify with the heroes and
project their own needs into their responses. If someone tells one story after another
about the loss of a loved one, resistance to authority, the struggle to achieve success,
or fear of rejection, chances are that the particular theme is an important one for the
person. As with the Rorschach, the TAT has been criticized for lacking high levels of
reliability and validity (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997; Jenkins, 2017). At the same time,
TAT pictures have been reliably used to identify specific motives (Gruber, 2017),
personality dispositions (Cramer, 2017), the realities of cancer treatment (Venturini &
Roques, 2016), and to predict behavior. People whose TAT stories reveal a high
rather than low need for intimacy think more often about their social relationships and
spend more time talking, smiling, and making eye contact when engaged in
conversation (McAdams, Jackson, & Kirshnit, 1984). In contrast, people whose
stories reveal a high rather than low need for achievement set realistic goals, persist
more in the face of failure, are more likely to succeed at work, and derive more pride
from their accomplishments (Atkinson, 1957; McClelland, 1985; Spangler, 1992). Not
all TAT cards will activate a person’s need state, but when they do, the fantasy stories
people tell, and the themes they emphasize, reveal their personalities (Cramer, 1996;
Gieser & Stein, 1999; Tuerlinckx, De Boeck, & Lens, 2002).
Current Perspectives on Psychoanalysis
In 1993, Time magazine had a picture of Sigmund Freud on the cover,
accompanied by three words: “Is Freud Dead?” It has now been more than 100 years
since Freud started putting together the pieces of psychoanalysis, a theory that would
alter the course of psychology as a discipline. Needless to say, Freud and other
psychoanalysts have always attracted their share of critics, as new research
developments within psychology lead us to modify or reject some propositions and to
accept others. To this day, Freud remains a subject of biography, analysis, and
controversy (Frosh, 2016; Razinsky, 2014; Rizzolo, 2016). His life, work, and
relationship conflicts even inspired a 2011 film, A Dangerous Game, that was
analyzed (the irony!) by Ferrell and Silverman (2014).
There are three major criticisms of psychoanalysis. One is that as a theory of
personality it paints too bleak a portrait of human nature. It was bad enough when
Copernicus exposed the myth that Earth is at the center of the universe and when
Darwin said that human beings were descended from apes. But when Freud claimed
that we are driven, even as infants, by lustful, incestuous desires and antisocial,
aggressive impulses and that we are all at the mercy of unconscious forces beyond
our control, some people felt he went too far. The theory was simply too pessimistic
for many people to accept.
The second criticism of psychoanalysis is that it does not meet acceptable
standards of science. From the start, Freud based his whole theory on observations
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y
he made of his Vienna patients during a time of sexual repression (Starr & Aron,
2011), hardly a representative group of human beings. He then proceeded to use the
theory to explain family dynamics, mental illness, love and attraction, homosexuality,
war, religion, suicide, crime and punishment, and the course of human history. Plus,
Freud considered women to be less moral than men, was phallocentric, and saw
libido as a masculine force (Hsieh, 2012). Of course, after-the-fact explanations are
easy, very much like betting on a horse after the race has been run. But can Freud’s
theory predict these kinds of events in advance?
David Cerny’s sculpture of Sigmund Freud signifies the psychologist’s constant
struggle with death. The sculpture is on display in Prague, Czech Republic.
AP Photo/Alex Milan Tracy
The critics say no, which leads to the third major criticism of psychoanalysis:
Carefully controlled research fails to support many of its propositions, as the great
scientific philosopher Karl Popper (1963) argued. One important example concerns
the assumption that personality is completely formed in the first few years of life. In
light of recent research, we now know that although early childhood experiences are
formative, and can have a lasting impact on us, development is a lifelong process.
Freud’s theory that childhood conflicts cause people to become fixated at certain
psychosexual stages has also not stood the test of time. Research has shown that
although oral, anal, and phallic personality types can be identified, they don’t
necessarily arise from difficulties experienced in weaning, toilet training,
masturbation, or other psychosexual experiences. Even the Oedipus complex, the
centerpiece of Freud’s development theory, receives little support. Young boys and
girls often do favor the opposite-sex parent and identify with the same-sex parent.
Research by Fraley and Marks (2010) demonstrated that subliminally priming
participants with a photo of their opposite-sex parents increases participants’
perceived attractiveness of others. However, gender socialization and cultural norms
contribute to which parent one identifies with—variables that Freud did not include.
Finally, there’s little evidence for castration anxiety, penis envy, or other sex-related
motives (Daly & Wilson, 1990; Fisher & Greenberg, 1977).
So is Freud dead? The man is, but his influence clearly is not. In its classic form,
psychoanalysis has shortcomings and relatively few adherents (Eysenck, 2002). But
many of its concepts have become so absorbed into mainstream psychology—not to
mention popular culture—that it is very much alive and continues to inspire new
theories and research (Hobson, 2013; Hunyady, Josephs & Jost, 2008; Thompson &
Keable, 2016). In fact, Kandel (1999) believed that advances in neuroscience in the
late 1990s might make it possible to uncover the biological bases for some of Freud’s
ideas. Ceylan and colleagues (2016), Ruby (2011), and Guénolé and colleagues
(2013) all agree with Kandel.
Perhaps the most enduring of Freud’s ideas is his view of the mind as an iceberg.
Today, virtually everyone agrees that the unconscious is vast and important—and that
people have a limited awareness of why they think, feel, and behave as they do
(Charles et al., 2017; Sandberg, Timmermans, Overgaard, & Cleeremans, 2010; Volz
& Gazzaniga, 2017). Psychologists disagree, however, about the nature of the human
unconscious. Some maintain that it contains thoughts, wishes, impulses, memories,
and other information actively blocked from awareness for self-protective reasons
(Bowers & Farvolden, 1996; Erdelyi, 1992) or due to lack of neural synchronization
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