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Is Hypnosis an “Altered” State?
Since the time Mesmer first used hypnotism to treat medical ailments, there has
been widespread interest in the phenomenon. Freud used hypnosis to unlock the
unconscious. Others have used it to relieve pain, to treat psychological problems, to
uncover repressed memories, and to entertain audiences around the world. Using
hypnosis is easy. The tougher question is: What is it? Does hypnosis produce an outof-the-ordinary, trancelike, “altered” state of consciousness?
Psychologists are not in agreement on this question. Some say yes, others say
no. As a general rule, special-process theorists maintain that hypnosis induces a
unique state of consciousness and that people are more responsive to suggestion
while under hypnosis than in other states (Bowers, 1992; Yeh, Schnur, &
Montgomery, 2014). In contrast, a growing number of social-cognitive theorists
maintain that hypnosis is not a distinct physiological state and that the same
phenomena can sometimes be produced through relaxation, role playing, positive
expectations, or mere suggestion—without hypnotic induction (Lilienfeld & Arkowitz,
2008; Lynn, Rhue, & Weekcs, 1990; Nash & Benham, 2005).
Special-Process Theories
According to Ernest Hilgard (1986), hypnosis can induce a state of dissociation
—a division of consciousness into two or more parts that operate independently and
are separated by an “amnesic barrier.” In some ways, dissociation is a common
experience—as when you drive somewhere, only to realize afterward that you
“spaced out” and can’t recall the route you took or the traffic signals you obeyed. One
part of you drove, while another part of you daydreamed. In many people, says
Hilgard, hypnosis produces a similar split in which one part of the mind goes along
with hypnotic suggestions, while another part—a “hidden observer”—knows what’s
happening but does not participate.
dissociation. A division of consciousness that permits one part of the mind to
operate independently of another part.
To illustrate this concept, let’s return to the pain-tolerance experiment described
earlier, where subjects immersed a hand in ice water and periodically rated how
much pain they were in (Hilgard et al., 1975). Figure 4.11 shows that subjects
reported far less pain when they were hypnotized to “feel no pain” than when they
were not. Compared to control subjects, who reached a pain level of 10 within 25
seconds, the average pain rating of hypnotized subjects never exceeded a 2 on the
scale. In a fascinating variation on this study, hypnotized subjects were told to press a
key with their free hand if “some part” of them was in pain. Figure 4.11 also illustrates
the results of this variation. Even though the hypnotized subjects reported low pain
levels, their hidden observer was passively aware of the pain. Because these
subjects reported two very different experiences at once, reasoned Hilgard, the
hypnosis must have induced a state of dissociation. Well, perhaps.
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Description
Figure 4.11 Hypnosis, Pain, and the “Hidden Observer”
Source: Adapted from Hilgard, E. R., Morgan, A. H., & Macdonald, H.
(1975). Pain and dissociation in the cold pressor test: A study of hypnotic
analgesia with "hidden reports" through automatic key pressing and
automatic talking. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 84(3), 280–289.
https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076654
Social-Cognitive Theories
The skeptics differ in their emphases, but all agree that the impressive effects of
hypnosis stem from the power of social influence, not from any special process or
trancelike state of altered consciousness. Perhaps highly responsive subjects are
motivated to comply. Or perhaps they simply become so absorbed by the situation
that they get caught up in their role the way dramatic actors often do. In support of
this view, research shows that control subjects in the waking state often exhibit the
same remarkable behaviors—when they are sufficiently motivated and believe they
can succeed. Thus, pain tolerance in the ice-water test can be increased without a
hypnotic induction (Hay, Okkerse, van Amerongen, & Groeneveld, 2016).
Although there are exceptions, most social-cognitive theorists do not believe that
hypnosis subjects consciously fake their compliance with the hypnotist’s suggestions
(Jensen et al., 2015; Kirsch & Lynn, 1995). Is it possible to test this hypothesis? Yes.
If subjects are merely playing along, they might respond to suggestions in the
hypnotist’s presence—but certainly not in his or her absence. In fact, however, the
hypnotic effects carry over. Eve Marie Perugini and others (1998) hypnotized highly
responsive subjects but instructed low-responsive subjects to simulate the hypnosis.
The hypnotic test was twice administered over a tape recorder—once in front of the
examiner and once when the subject was left alone. The results were clear: In front of
the examiner, both the hypnotized subjects and simulators complied equally with
suggestions. But in the alone condition, a hidden camera revealed that highly
responsive hypnosis subjects continued to pet imaginary cats, nod their heads to
imaginary music, and respond to other suggestions even while the simulators did not.
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Additional studies too have shown that hypnotized subjects are not just deceiving the
experimenter (Jensen et al., 2015; Kinnunen, Zamanksi, & Block, 1994). Hypnosis
may not trigger a “special” process, but the behavior it produces reflects more than
mere compliance.
At this point, hypnosis can be viewed in many ways. For example, highly
responsive individuals in hypnosis may become so highly focused in their attention
and so absorbed that the process feels “special.” When college students were
interviewed about their behavior in a campuswide hypnotism show, 28 percent of
those who took part thought the hypnotist had complete control over their actions and
that they could not resist the suggestions (Crawford, Kitner-Triolo, Clarke, & Otesko,
1992). In addition, EEG recordings show that alpha-wave activity—which typically
accompanies a drowsy, presleep state—increases during hypnosis, particularly
among subjects high in hypnotic responsiveness (Graffin, Ray, & Lundy, 1995). PET
scan studies also reveal that hypnosis activates certain areas of the cerebral cortex
(Graham, 2005; Rainville et al., 1999). At the same time, some people succumb to
hypnosis and comply with suggestions through normal channels of social influence,
without a change in the state of their consciousness—which explains why our
expectations, motivations, and rapport with the hypnotist play an important role
(Jensen et al., 2015; Kirsch & Lynn, 1999). In short, there may be two roads, both
leading to the same state.
LEARNING CHECK
Consciousness Raising
Match each phenomenon of consciousness in the left column with its closest
description from the right.
(Answers: 1.d; 2.a; 3.g; 4.b; 5.f; 6.e; 7.c)
CONSCIOUSNESS-ALTERING DRUGS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Identify psychoactive and addictive drugs and the effects of drug use on
consciousness and long-term health.
Identify drugs that are considered psychoactive and addictive, and explain
their mechanism of action.
Describe the effects on consciousness of alcohol and tobacco.
Relate the long-term health effects of illicit drugs.
Discuss whether people can control what is in the spotlight of consciousness.
Throughout history, people all over the world have sought new ways to achieve
altered states of consciousness. Dancing, chanting, twirling in circles, repetitive
prayer, yoga, ritualized fasting, meditation, sensory isolation, and intoxicants such as
opium, alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine are a few examples (illustrated in Figure
4.12). The historical and cross-cultural consistency of these behaviors is so
compelling that some researchers believe that humans have an inborn need to
experience altered states of mind (Leotti, Iyengar, & Ochsner, 2010; Weil & Rosen,
1993; Rudgley, 1999).
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Figure 4.12 Altered States of Consciousness iStock.com/ManoAfrica;
iStock.com/Tiago_Fernandez; iStockphoto.com/ozgurdonmaz
Alcohol, possibly the first “mind-altering” substance used by humans, goes back
about 10,000 years. According to Bert Vallee (1998), alcoholic beverages were the
mother’s milk of Western civilization before clean, pure water became available. He
notes, for example, that the Bible contains many references to wine but little mention
of water as a beverage. Other mind-altering drugs also have a long history, as opium
was used 6,000 years ago and hallucinogenic mushrooms and weeds go back about
4,000 years (Palfai & Jankiewicz, 1991). More recently, Native Americans smoked
tobacco as a goodwill offering. South Pacific islanders drank kava, a calming drink
that is made from dried roots. Europeans celebrated special occasions with wine and
champagne. Instances of drug use have even been observed in animals. Baboons
eat tobacco, rabbits eat intoxicating mushrooms, and elephants seek out fermented
fruit.
A quick but often dangerous way to alter consciousness is to use a psychoactive
drug, a chemical that influences perceptions, moods, thoughts, or behavior.
Depending on where in the world you are, a psychoactive substance may be legal or
illegal. In most countries, caffeine, tobacco, alcohol, tranquilizers, and sleeping pills
are legal. Cocaine, crack, heroin, and LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) are illegal and
are referred to as illicit drugs. As in our ancient past, humans are also in hot pursuit of
the perfect aphrodisiac—a drug that is supposed to enhance sexual desire, pleasure,
and performance (Crowley, Kirschner, Dunn, & Bornstein, 2017; Korcha, Polcin,
Bond, Lapp, & Galloway, 2011).
psychoactive drug. A chemical that alters perceptions, thoughts, moods, or
behavior.
Psychoactive drugs can become physically or psychologically addictive. Physical
dependence is a physiological state in which continued drug use is needed to satisfy
an intense craving and to prevent the dreaded onset of withdrawal symptoms such as
shaking, sweating, and vomiting. Continued use of psychoactive drugs also produces
tolerance, a condition in which larger and larger doses are needed to induce the
same effect. Even without a physical addiction, people can also develop a
psychological dependence, in which continued drug use is needed to maintain a
sense of well-being.
physical dependence. A physiological addiction in which a drug is needed to
prevent symptoms of withdrawal.
psychological dependence. A condition in which drugs are needed to maintain a
sense of well-being or relief from negative emotions.
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People have used psychoactive drugs throughout history. In this Egyptian
painting, the woman on the left is pouring beer from a jug.
Historic Images / Alamy Stock Photo
There are four major classes of psychoactive drugs: sedatives, stimulants,
hallucinogens, and opiates (summarized in Table 4.1).
Table 4.1
Drug use is a problem in general but is of greatest concern among youths. Drugs
commonly used by youths in the United States are presented in Figure 4.13.
Description
Figure 4.13 Commonly Used Drugs of Abuse Source: Key Substance Use and
Mental Health Indicators in the United States: Results from the 2018 National Survey
on Drug Use and Health. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration (SAMHSA), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)
Sedatives
Sedatives, or depressants, slow down activity in the central nervous system and
produce calmness, drowsiness, and, in large doses, a loss of consciousness. The
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most commonly used sedatives are barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and, of course,
alcohol. The first two are used for anesthetic purposes and in the treatment of anxiety
and insomnia. As a rule, these drugs are highly addictive (Weaver, 2015).
sedatives. A class of depressant drugs that slow down activity in the central
nervous system.
Barbiturates are sedatives that have been used in the treatment of epilepsy,
anxiety, and insomnia (Lickey & Gordon, 1991). The behavioral effects of barbiturates
are similar to those of alcohol—such as drowsiness, slowness, and decreased
performance on perceptual and cognitive tasks. In large doses, barbiturates also
serve as an anesthetic, providing significant relief from pain. However, they tend to
cause hangovers after the effects wear off. Barbiturates are among the most abused
of all drugs. They are also addictive. Tolerance to barbiturates develops rapidly, and
withdrawal symptoms are unpleasant. Mixing alcohol with barbiturates is especially
dangerous.
Benzodiazepines, or minor tranquilizers, are another class of drugs often used in
the treatment of anxiety and insomnia. Valium, Librium, and, more recently, Xanax
are the most common “downers.” Taken in pill form, they have a calming and relaxing
effect and put people to sleep—usually for the entire night. Benzodiazepines are
safer than barbiturates—except when mixed with alcohol. They have become the
sedatives of choice for many people, though they can be quite addictive with
prolonged use.
Alcohol is one of the most widely used drugs in the world. The 2015 National
Survey on Drug Use and Health (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
2017) revealed that, among college students (ages 18–22), 58 percent drank alcohol
in the past month (compared to 48 percent of same-age peers), 38 percent reported
binge drinking (five or more drinks in one sitting) in the past month (compared to 33
percent of same-age peers), and 12.5 percent reported heavy alcohol use in the past
month (compared to 8.5 percent of same-age peers). The question is, what are the
effects?
Regardless of whether it comes from a six pack, a bottle of wine, or a glass of
whiskey, gin, or vodka, alcohol is something of a paradox. It’s known as a party drug
that lifts spirits and lowers inhibitions, yet it has a sedative, depressant effect on the
body. The symptoms include decreased visual acuity; diminished attention; lowered
sensitivity to taste, smell, and pain; slowed reaction times; a loss of balance; slurred
speech; and lowered performance on intelligence tests. Alcohol hastens the onset of
sleep (as do most depressants) but does not increase the overall amount of time one
sleeps in a night. In fact, it suppresses REM sleep—which has a disruptive effect
once the alcohol wears off.
Anyone who has had a few too many drinks knows that alcohol alters awareness
and behavior. As we’ll explore later in this book, alcohol has two effects in this regard.
First, people often drown their sorrows in a bottle in order to escape from failure and
its harsh implications for their self-esteem. Many of us expect alcohol to provide this
type of “relief” (Leigh & Stacy, 1993) and to help us manage our emotional highs and
lows (Cooper, Bloom, & Roth, 1995). By getting 100 adult men and women to keep a
daily diary, and keep track of their alcohol consumption, Cynthia Mohr and her
colleagues (2001) found that there are two distinct types of drinking: social drinking,
out of the house and with others, which people do when they’ve had good days, and
solitary drinking, at home and alone, which they tend to do on bad days. Apparently,
alcohol consumption comes in two forms: “Crying in your beer and toasting good
times” (p. 489).
A second effect is that people take more risks when they’re drunk than when
sober, in part because alcohol reduces anxiety, which leads us to shed social
inhibitions (Ito, Miller, & Pollock, 1996), and in part because it leads us to become
shortsighted about the consequences of our actions, evoking a state of “drunken
excess” (Steele & Josephs, 1990). Put all these pieces together, and it’s hardly
surprising that drinking is statistically linked to highway fatalities, murders, assaults,
child abuse, and other acts of recklessness and violence. Even in laboratory
experiments, subjects are more aggressive after they’re given alcohol to drink than
when given a nonalcoholic beverage (Harris & Koob, 2017).
Stimulants
Stimulants excite the central nervous system and stimulate behavior. Caffeine
and nicotine are common mild stimulants. Amphetamines and cocaine have much
stronger effects. These drugs speed up bodily functions (that’s why amphetamines
are known as speed or uppers), increase breathing and heart rates, heighten
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alertness, suppress appetite, and produce feelings of excitement, self-confidence,
and even elation. For these reasons, people use stimulants to stay awake, lose
weight, and elevate mood. In large amounts, they can make a person anxious, jittery,
and hyperalert. As is often the case with psychoactive drugs, the user may come
down from the high in a “crash” and feel tired, downbeat, and irritable. Like the
sedatives, stimulants, including coffee, can be addictive (Meredith, Juliano, Hughes,
& Griffiths, 2013).
stimulants. A class of drugs that excite the central nervous system and energize
behavior.
Amphetamines are synthetic drugs, often taken in pill form, for the treatment of
asthma, narcolepsy, depression, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and obesity.
In low doses, amphetamines increase alertness and arousal, boost energy, relieve
fatigue, and suppress appetite. In higher doses, these drugs can cause confusion,
manic behavior, and aggression. Chronic amphetamine use can even trigger
schizophrenia-like symptoms. Recently, amphetamine modifications have been
synthesized in the pharmaceutical laboratory. One of these “designer drugs” is
methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), or Ecstasy. In addition to its stimulant
properties, MDMA is said to evoke a sense of well-being, particularly in relation to
others (Bershad et al., 2019). One powerful methamphetamine, commonly known as
“speed,” comes in a smokable form (“ice”) that is highly addictive and can be fatal.
Cocaine (“coke”) is a natural drug derived from the leaves of the coca plant, a
shrub native to South America. Its use as a stimulant was discovered hundreds of
years ago by Peruvian Indians, who chewed coca leaves to overcome fatigue and
increase stamina. Taken in this manner, small amounts of cocaine gradually enter the
bloodstream. Today, cocaine in white powder form is usually inhaled through the nose
(“snorted”), resulting in a quick and intense rush of euphoria. Its consciousnessaltering effects, which last up to 30 minutes, are predictably followed by a crash
caused by a temporary depletion in the supplies of dopamine and norepinephrine. A
highly potent form of cocaine known as “crack” is smoked in a pipe or injected directly
into the bloodstream. Crack gives a higher high but is followed by a lower low—and a
craving for another “hit.” It is dangerous and highly addictive (Platt, 2000).
Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens are the psychoactive drugs that cause the most dramatic
alterations in consciousness. These drugs (which are also called psychedelics, from
the Greek words meaning “mind expanding”) distort perceptions of time and space
and cause hallucinations—sensations without sensory input. The best-known
hallucinogens are psilocybin (“shrooms”), LSD, and PCP. The latter (also called
“angel dust”) is a potent but dangerous painkiller. Marijuana, which has mixed
sedative and stimulant effects, also acts as a mild hallucinogen.
hallucinogens. Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and cause
hallucinations.
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In 1886, pharmacist John Pemberton created Coca-Cola and sold it, at first, as a
headache remedy and stimulant. The drink contained cocaine, which was later
replaced by caffeine. This 1914 ad highlights Coca-Cola’s stimulating effects.
Transcendental Graphics / Contributor
LSD is a synthetic drug that was first discovered in 1938 by Albert Hofmann, a
Swiss chemist. At one point, Hofmann experimented on himself. He took what he
thought to be a small dose of LSD and found himself for 14 hours in a world he would
never forget: “Everything in my field of vision was distorted as if seen in a curved
mirror.... Familiar objects and furniture assumed grotesque, threatening forms...
opening and closing themselves in circles and spirals, exploding in colored fountains”
(Hofmann, 1980). Drug companies, researchers, and intelligence agencies in search
of a truth serum soon went on to experiment with LSD. Even when they take small
doses, acid “trippers” report that objects shimmer, colors become more vivid, their
perception of time is slowed, old memories surface, and emotions range from
euphoria to panic. Effects of LSD also include increased emotional responsiveness to
music and the meaning of music, in addition to feelings of closeness to others,
openness, trust, and suggestibility (Carhart-Harris et al., 2015). Many researchers
believe that LSD and the other hallucinogens produce these effects largely by
blocking activity of the neurotransmitter serotonin (Liechti, 2017).
A milder and less potent hallucinogen is cannabis, which is derived from the
cannabis plant (cannabis sativa). It has two major active ingredients: THC (delta-9tetrahydrocannabinol), which is the primary psychoactive component of marijuana,
and CBD, which does not cause intoxication or euphoria (the “high”) and has
therapeutic effects used to treat Alzheimer’s disease, inflammation, and certain
seizure disorders (Maroon & Bost, 2018). Cannabis is used in three main forms:
marijuana, hashish, and hash oil. Marijuana, the least potent of all the cannabis
products, is made from dried flowers and leaves of the cannabis plant and is usually
smoked in hand-rolled “joints” or vaporizers, or made into edibles like cookies or
brownies. Hashish, often dried and pressed into small blocks and smoked, is made
from the resin (a secreted gum) of the cannabis plant and can also be made into
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( g ) p
edibles and eaten. Hash oil, the most potent cannabis product, is a thick oil obtained
from hashish and is also smoked. At low doses, cannabis may act like a sedative,
producing a relaxed state and possibly a mild euphoria. It may also heighten
awareness of colors, sounds, tastes, smells, and other sensations. At higher doses, it
may distort perceptions of time and space. According to a 2017 Marist Poll, an
estimated 52 percent of Americans age 18 years or older have used marijuana at
least on one occasion, making it the most commonly used illicit drug in the United
States. Today, marijuana has been a subject of a popular movement to legalize the
drug, now being legalized for use for medical and recreational purposes in many U.S.
states.
Opiates
Opiates are a class of drugs that are related to opium (an extract of the poppy
plant), and they include morphine, codeine, and heroin. Their most prominent effect is
to produce euphoria and analgesia (they also cause constipation). Because opiates
depress neural activity, they are prescribed widely for the alleviation of pain—and
have been used for this medical purpose for thousands of years. The user becomes
drowsy and lethargic, yet happy and euphoric. Changes in consciousness are not
particularly striking. These drugs are highly addictive, as the user quickly develops an
insatiable need for more and larger doses. Heroin can be injected, smoked, or
inhaled. Heroin users risk death through overdose, contaminated drugs, and AIDS
contracted by sharing drug-injection needles.
opiates. A class of highly addictive drugs that depress neural activity and provide
temporary relief from pain and anxiety.
People all over the world have sought to alter their states of consciousness, often
by the consumption of psychoactive substances. Whatever the reasons for this
desire, it is clear that drug use often turns to abuse and that social factors—like
poverty, peer pressure, work stress, and a lack of personal fulfillment—play a role. In
the United States, the number of people who use psychoactive drugs, which had
declined over the past few years, is now on the rise for the first time in well over a
decade. It is not clear, as a matter of public policy, how the problem can be solved.
Thus, as policy makers debate the perennial question of whether to legalize the illicit
drugs, many psychologists concede that there are risks and that they cannot
confidently predict the impact of such a policy (Jones et al., 2018).
LEARNING CHECK
Random Drug Testing
Hallucinogens, opiates, sedatives and stimulants are four categories of
consciousness-altering drugs. Identify the appropriate category for the substances
below.
(Answers: Hallucinogens—e, n, o; opiates—d, h, j; sedatives—a, f, g, m, p, q;
stimulants—b, c, i, k, l.)
Consciousness and Control
Our ability to exert control over the contents of awareness is, at times, impressive.
We saw earlier, for example, that lucid dreamers can sometimes control their dreams
—and that almost anyone who is motivated can be trained to become a lucid
dreamer. And we saw that although some of us can be hypnotized easily (a trait that
requires the ability to focus attention and become absorbed), people cannot be
hypnotized against their will—and those who are normally low in hypnotic
susceptibility can learn to become more responsive to induction. Of course, when it
comes to drug-induced altered states of consciousness, the choice is yours.
One particularly important way to control consciousness—meditation—first
attracted great interest in the West in the 1950s when “beat generation” heroes like
Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg embraced Zen Buddhism. The interest broadened
in the 1960s when the Beatles went to India to learn to meditate. In the 1990s, the
number of people turning to meditation grew so dramatically that some meditation
centers had to establish lotteries as a way to accommodate the applicants for
retreats. Many are drawn by the promise of stress reduction, calm, equanimity, and
even euphoria. But for experienced meditators, while they acknowledge these “side
effects,” the rewards are based on the analogy—more than 3,000 years old—that
disciplining the mind is like taming an elephant to make it useful. For them, the value
of meditation lies not in some kind of bliss trip but rather in the heightened awareness
of their everyday lives.
Despite these impressive abilities, there are times when the control of
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p p
consciousness seems out of reach. The mind may wander, you may slip into a
daydream, and you may become distracted despite your efforts at concentration.
People who become dependent on a psychoactive drug may lose the ability to control
their states of consciousness. And those who suffer from various anxiety-related
disorders may become literally obsessed with certain thoughts (refer to Chapter 13).
Studying what he calls “ironic processes” in mental control, Daniel Wegner (1994)
has found that, at times, the harder you try to control your own thoughts, the less
likely you are to succeed. Try not to think about a white bear for the next 30 seconds,
and chances are that very image will intrude on your consciousness with remarkable
frequency. Tell a jury to disregard an item of inadmissible testimony, and that
censored material is sure to pop to mind as they deliberate on a verdict. Try not to
worry about how long it’s taking to fall asleep, and you’ll stay awake. Try not to laugh
in class or to think about the chocolate cake in the fridge or the itch on your nose—
well, you get the idea.
According to Wegner, every conscious effort at control is met by a concern about
failing to do so. This concern automatically triggers an “ironic operating process” as
the person, trying not to fail, searches his or her mind for the unwanted thought. The
ironic process will not necessarily prevail, says Wegner. Sometimes we can put the
imaginary white bear out of mind. But if we’re busy, distracted, tired, hurried, or under
stress, then the ironic process, because it “just happens,” will prevail over the
intentional process—which requires conscious attention and effort. So, Wegner
(1997) notes, “any attempt at mental control contains the seeds of its own undoing”
(p. 148).
TRY THIS!
Beat the Clock
According to Daniel Wegner, “any attempt at mental control contains the seeds of
its own undoing”—as demonstrated when one tries not to think about a white bear for
30 seconds.
To determine how irresistible Wegner’s “ironic operating process” can be, TRY
THIS: Go to one of your classes determined not to look at the time for the whole
period (that means not looking at a clock on the wall or your watch—and no fair not
wearing it—and not peeking at the time on your cellphone or your computer if you
use it for note-taking). Can you make it all the way through without checking the
time?
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