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treatment period, subjects recorded how long it took them to fall asleep each night as
well as the total amount of time they slept. Did the self-help program work? Look at
Figure 4.9, and you’ll find that it did. Compared to subjects in the no-treatment control
group, those who took part in the treatment program—regardless of whether or not
they talked with a therapist—took less time to get to sleep and spent more time
sleeping after the program than before.
Description
Figure 4.9 Self-Help Benefits for Insomnia
Source: Adapted from Mimeault, V., & Morin, C. M. (1999).
Among people who have trouble falling or staying asleep, insomnia can have
many causes. On average, psychiatric patients get less sleep than do people without
mental disorders (Benca, Obermeyer, Thisted, & Gillin, 1992; Talih, Ajaltouni,
Ghandour, Abu-Mohammad, & Kobeissy, 2018). Medical ailments, pain, stress,
depression, jet lag, night work, shifting work schedules, old age, and alcohol and drug
abuse are also linked to insomnia. In some cases, the only “problem” is that people
who think they should sleep 8 hours a night go to bed before they’re really tired. The
use of medications may also pose an ironic danger. Certain over-the-counter sleeping
pills are not effective. Some prescription drugs will, at first, put the insomniac to sleep
and prevent rude awakenings during the night, but sedatives may also inhibit certain
stages of sleep and cause restlessness after the drug is terminated. Numerous
studies have shown that most people can successfully overcome insomnia by altering
their behavior—but that the benefits are smaller for those who take sleeping pills
(Lichstein & Morin, 2000; Hu, Oh, Ha, Hong, & Oh, 2018).
Hypersomnia
Studies conducted in different countries show that between 5 and 18 percent of
people complain of hypersomnia—being sleepy during the day and sleeping too
much at night (Guilleminault & Roth, 1993; Slater & Steier, 2012). The most profound
and most dangerous problem of this type is narcolepsy (meaning “sleep seizure”),
an uncommon disorder characterized by sudden, irresistible attacks of drowsiness
and REM sleep during the day (American Psychiatric Association, 2020; Materna et
al., 2018).
narcolepsy. A sleep disorder characterized by irresistible and sudden attacks of
REM sleep during the day.
A narcolepsy attack may strike without warning at any time—while playing
basketball, eating a meal, having a conversation, working in an office, or having sex.
The attack lasts from 5 to 30 minutes and plunges its victim into REM sleep. The
narcoleptic’s jaw will sag, the head will fall forward, the arms will drop, and the knees
will buckle. This collapse is sometimes accompanied by the hypnogogic
hallucinations that usher in the onset of sleep. As you might imagine, people with
narcolepsy have problems at work and in their social lives. For example, they are
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often unfairly perceived to be lazy and uninterested (Douglas, 1998). Narcolepsy can
be life threatening. In one study, 40 percent of the narcoleptics who were questioned
admitted they had fallen asleep while driving (Siegel et al., 1991). Although there is
no cure, daytime sleep attacks can be minimized by taking regularly scheduled naps
(Mullington & Broughton, 1993) and stimulant drugs (Franceschini et al., 2021).
This photograph shows a person tossing and turning due to an insomnia disorder.
Insomnia can be a frustrating experience that can have short- and long-term effects
on health.
f:nalinframe / Alamy Stock Photo
Parasomnias
For some people, falling asleep at night and staying awake during the day are not
a problem—but too often their sleep is disturbed. There are several specific disorders
of this type. One particularly troublesome disturbance is sleep apnea (apnea means
“to stop breathing”), which afflicts an estimated 22 million Americans (American Sleep
Apnea Association, 2017). A person with sleep apnea will fall asleep normally but
then stop breathing and awaken snorting like a buzz saw, choking, and gasping for
air. Sleep-laboratory studies show that a person with sleep apnea will fall asleep
again right away, but these partial awakenings can recur 400 times during the night,
thus preventing slow-wave sleep and making the person excessively tired and
irritable during the day (Langevin, Sukkar, Leger, Guez, & Robert, 1992). With some
success, the problem can be treated surgically, or with a continuous positive airway
pressure (CPAP) device—which pumps air through a tube and into a plastic mask
worn during sleep. The air holds the person’s throat open and prevents snoring
(Bollu, Goyal, Thakkar, & Sahota, 2018; Piccirillo, Duntley, & Schotland, 2000). Of
course, many people without apnea also snore while they sleep—much to the
discomfort of roommates and bed partners.
sleep apnea. A disorder in which a person repeatedly stops breathing during
sleep and awakens gasping for air.
Nightmares are vivid, anxiety-provoking dreams that sometimes haunt us during
REM sleep—and awaken us. They are common, particularly among children, and
should not be a source of concern unless they persist for long periods of time.
Nightmares—albeit scary—are not dangerous, except for people with REM sleep
behavior disorder (RBD)—a very rare condition in which the skeletal muscles do not
become paralyzed, as they should, during REM sleep. People with RBD have
mobility to act on their nightmares and often do so in violent ways. As a result, 85
percent of sufferers have injured themselves and 44 percent have hurt their bed
partners, sometimes seriously (Bassetti & Bargiotas, 2018; Schenck, 1993).
REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD). A condition in which the skeletal muscles
are not paralyzed during REM sleep, enabling sleepers to act on their nightmares,
often violently.
There are also NREM sleep disruptions. In night terrors, the person jolts abruptly
from a deep sleep, in a state of panic, and gives off a loud, bloodcurdling scream. As
with nightmares, this problem is more common among children than among adults.
It’s also more frightening, particularly for others in the household. Because it occurs
during NREM sleep, however, the night-terror victim will usually not recall a dream
and by morning will have forgotten the whole episode.
Another NREM experience is sleepwalking, in which a sleeper quietly sits up,
climbs out of bed, and walks about with eyes open and a blank expression.
Sleepwalkers may start slowly, but soon they’re going to the bathroom, dressing,
eating, and opening doors. They are prone to accidents such as falling down stairs,
so it is safer to gently awaken a sleepwalker than to allow the person to wander
about. People used to think that sleepwalkers were acting out dreams. But that’s not
the case. These episodes occur early in the night, during the deep, slow-wave stages
of sleep. Sometimes sleepwalkers will wake up and be disoriented, but most often
they just go back to bed. Like night-terror victims, sleepwalkers seldom recall their
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travels in the morning. In a rare and particularly curious variant of the problem, some
individuals are said to have engaged in “sleepsex”—sexual acts performed while
asleep (Rosenfeld & Elhajjar, 1998). Cleary, the brain is active even during sleep—
and, clearly, consciousness is complex and multilayered.
LEARNING CHECK
Sleeping Generalities
(Answers: Presleep: a, b, e; non-REM sleep stage 1: d; non-REM sleep stage
2: j; non-REM sleep stages 3–4: c, h, i; REM sleep: f, g, k.)
HYPNOSIS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain the phenomenon of hypnosis and how it is used in therapy.
Describe what hypnosis is and explain why it has always been controversial.
Summarize the current thinking regarding susceptibility to hypnosis.
Distinguish between common myths and realities related to hypnosis.
Relate how hypnosis can be useful in therapy.
Elaborate on the debate over whether hypnosis is an “altered” state of mind.
Many decades ago, Ernest Hilgard was demonstrating hypnosis in his psychology
class. The student who volunteered to serve as a subject happened to be blind, so
Hilgard hypnotized him and said that on the count of three he would become deaf—
and would stay that way until touched on the right shoulder. One, two, three! Hilgard
then banged blocks together and fired a starter’s pistol that made everyone else leap
from their seats. But the subject did not respond. His classmates shouted questions
and taunted him, but still he did not respond. Then a hand went up. A student wanted
to know if any part of the subject knew what was happening, because, after all, there
was nothing really wrong with his ears.
It was a fascinating question. Hilgard said to the subject, “Perhaps there is some
part of your mind that is hearing my voice and processing the information. If there is, I
should like the index finger of your right hand to rise as a sign that this is the case.”
To everyone’s surprise, even Hilgard’s, the young man raised his finger and said,
“Please restore my hearing so that you can tell me what you did.” Hilgard then put his
hand on the subject’s shoulder and asked, “Can you hear me now?” The subject did.
“I remember you telling me that I would be deaf at the count of three and have my
hearing restored when you placed your hand on my shoulder. Then everything was
quiet for a while. It was a little boring just sitting here so I busied myself with a
statistical problem that I had been working on. I was still doing that when I felt my
finger lift; that is what I want you to explain to me.”
Next, Hilgard asked to speak with “that part of your mind that listened to me
before, while you were hypnotically deaf.” “Do you remember what happened?” The
subject remembered it all—the count to three, the banging blocks, the starter pistol,
and the questions from the class to which he did not respond. “Then one of them
asked if I might really be hearing, and you told me to raise my finger if I did. This part
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of me responded by raising my finger, so it’s all clear now.” Hilgard lifted his hand
from the subject’s arm to restore the hypnotic state and said, “Please tell me what
happened in the last few minutes.” The subject replied, “You said... some part of me
would talk to you. Did I talk?” The young man was assured that he would later recall
everything, and the session was terminated (Hilgard, 1992). Hilgard called the aware
part of this subject’s mind a “hidden observer.” This concept is controversial—and, as
we’ll learn, it has profound implications for the study of consciousness. But first things
first. What is hypnosis, how is it induced, and what are its effects?
The Seeds of Controversy
Hypnosis is a set of attention-focusing procedures in which changes in a person’s
behavior or state of mind are suggested. In one form or another, hypnosis has been
around for centuries, but the earliest known reference to it is traced to Franz Anton
Mesmer (1734–1815), a Viennese physician. Mesmer believed that illness was
caused by an imbalance of magnetic fluids in the body—and could be cured by
restoring the proper balance. Working in Paris, he would pass his hands across the
patient’s body and wave a magnetic wand over the infected area. Many patients
would descend into a trance and then awaken feeling better. The medical community,
however, viewed this treatment with skepticism, and in 1784 a French commission
chaired by Benjamin Franklin found that there was no scientific basis for the “animal
magnetism” theory, only “mere imagination.” Mesmer was called a quack and run out
of town. When he died, he was penniless. Yet to this day, we acknowledge his work
whenever we describe ourselves as being mesmerized.
hypnosis. Attention-focusing procedures in which changes in a person’s behavior
or mental state are suggested.
In the 19th century, the trancelike state Mesmer had created was called
hypnotism, from the Greek word for “sleep.” From that point on, hypnosis has had a
rocky relationship with science (Forrest, 2001). On the one hand, stage hypnotists
who swing pocket watches back and forth and try to make audience members cluck
like chickens lead people to associate hypnosis with parlor games, carnivals, and
magic shows. On the other hand, psychoanalysis originated with Freud’s use of
hypnosis to treat patients with various nervous disorders. Today, many health care
specialists use hypnosis with reasonable success to control pain and help patients
break bad habits (American Psychological Association, 2020b).
Hypnosis is important in the history of psychology. This 1780 engraving depicts
treatment by animal magnetism as practiced by Franz Mesmer. “Mesmerism” is today
considered a form of hypnosis.
duncan1890/Getty
The Hypnotic Induction
Hypnosis consists of two stages: an induction, which guides the subject into a
pliable, suggestible frame of mind; then a specific suggestion. The induction process
is not like casting a spell. There are no magical words or incantations to be uttered,
and there is no single technique. But there is one essential ingredient: a focusing of
attention.
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Speaking in a slow, soft, monotonous tone of voice, the hypnotist asks the subject
to concentrate on something. It could be anything. Hypnotists used to have subjects
stare at a flame, a shiny object, or a swinging pendulum, but a spot on the wall will
work just as well. So will the subject’s imagination. “Imagine that you’re lying on a
quiet beach. You are so warm and relaxed on the soft white sand, under the sun.
You’re very tired, and your eyes are closed. You can hear the ocean waves crashing
on the shore and the gulls flying overhead. And you can smell the warm, salt air. It’s
so sunny. Your skin is so warm. And you’re so relaxed. Your eyes are growing tired.
Very tired. Your eyelids are getting heavy. Heavy. They’re starting to close.” Whatever
technique is used, the purpose is to help the subject filter out all distractions and
focus a mental spotlight.
Once the subject is in a state of “relaxed alertness,” the individual is ripe for the
second stage, the suggestion. The hypnotist may begin with a quick test by
suggesting that “your eyes are closed and your eyelids are shut so tight that you
cannot open them no matter how hard you try.” Sure enough, the subject’s eyes
remain closed. At that point, the subject is ready for more. The hypnotist may note
that the subject’s arm is filling with air like a balloon and that it’s feeling lighter and
lighter—and is rising in the air. The subject does not know why, but the arm rises, as
if being pulled up on a string. The hypnotist may even invite the subject to enjoy the
scent of “perfume”—and watch as he or she inhales the fumes from a jar of ammonia.
Assuming the subject “passes” these preliminary tests, additional suggestions
depend on the reasons for the hypnosis. Thus, a subject may be encouraged to block
out pain, recall a traumatic past event, forget a past event, or break a bad habit when
the session is over.
Hypnotic Responsiveness
Contrary to popular belief, you cannot be hypnotized against your will. Nobody
can. People also respond differently. Over half a century ago, Hilgard (1965)
developed the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (SHSS), a 12-item behavioral
test that measures one’s hypnotic susceptibility, or responsiveness to hypnosis. In
this test, a brief induction is followed by suggestions for the subject to close his or her
eyes, sway back and forth, stiffen an arm, lower a hand, see an imaginary person,
and so on. Over the years, Hilgard has found that some people are highly susceptible
to hypnosis and that others are invulnerable to hypnosis but that most fall somewhere
between these extremes (Hilgard, 1982). In short, some types of people are more
susceptible, and others are less susceptible, to hypnosis.
hypnotic susceptibility. The extent to which an individual is characteristically
responsive to hypnosis.
What accounts for these individual differences? Research has shown that college
students who scored high or low in the early 1960s scored similarly when retested 25
years later (Piccione, Hilgard, & Zimbardo, 1989). This result tells us that there are
stable personality differences between the highs and lows. But how are these
differences to be interpreted? It’s interesting that in discussions of hypnosis, students
often seem eager if not proud to proclaim that they are too “independent” or too
“strong-willed” to be hypnotized. But hypnotic responsiveness is not a sign of
weakness. High scorers are not generally weaker or more conforming, compliant, or
obedient. But they are more open to experience, have more vivid imaginations, and
have an ability to become deeply absorbed in books, movies, and other activities
(Nadon, Hoyt, Register, & Kihlstrom, 1991; Zhang et al., 2017). In one study,
individuals highly responsive to hypnosis—often referred to as “virtuosos”—were led
under hypnosis to experience themselves as members of the opposite sex (Noble &
McConkey, 1995).
The Myths and Realities
Can a stage hypnotist make you strip naked in front of an audience, clap your
hands together, and bark like a seal? Popular portrayals of hypnosis are sometimes
accurate, but often they are not. Based on the results of controlled research, let us
examine the effects of hypnosis and try to separate the myths from the realities.
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Hypnosis is commonly applied in clinical settings where psychologists can help
treat patients. Knowing how hypnotism works can be as helpful for the patient as it
can for the hypnotist.
David McNew / Staff/Getty
Coercion
As noted earlier, people cannot be hypnotized against their will. But can subjects,
once under hypnosis, be coerced into acts that violate the conscience? Are they
completely at the mercy of a skilled hypnotist? For the sake of those who may benefit
from the therapeutic uses of hypnosis, one would hope not. In response to the notion
that the subject is under the hypnotist’s control, Karen Olness (1993), a pediatrician
and hypnotherapist, says, “Nonsense. All hypnosis is self-hypnosis” (p. 280). Most
psychologists similarly reject the view that hypnosis renders us helpless. And as a
general rule, hypnotized subjects reject immoral commands, knowing full well that
they are in control (Känd, 2020).
But evidence suggests that hypnotic coercion can lead people to shed inhibitions
and perform hurtful or antisocial acts—such as stealing, picking up a dangerous
snake, selling an illicit drug, and mutilating the Bible. In one experiment, Martin Orne
and Frederick Evans (1965) convinced hypnotized subjects to throw what they
thought to be nitric acid into a research assistant’s face. To determine if this result
proved that hypnosis can overpower the will, Orne and Evans told a second group of
subjects only to pretend they were hypnotized, issued the same command, and found
that they too threw the “acid.” Additional studies also suggest that subjects in
hypnosis experiments are aware of what they are doing—and are confident that they
would not be asked to harm themselves or someone else (Gibson, 1991). As we’ll
explore later, these results may say more about obedience to authority than about
hypnosis.
Pain Relief
“On the operating table, I put myself into a deeply relaxed state. I then
concentrated on a favorite memory: living on a farm as a child. In my mind, I felt what
it was like to lie on the grass, gaze up at the heavens, and see a bit of the barn out of
the corner of my eye. As the surgeon cut into the base of my thumb, I reassured him
that I felt no pain.... Although I was perfectly aware that I was undergoing surgery, I
just wasn’t very interested in it.” This story, as described by Olness (1993, p. 277),
embodies a real benefit of hypnosis: to serve as a psychological anesthetic.
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Many claims about the power of hypnosis are controversial, but research shows
that it does enable some people to tolerate pain. At Thaipusam, a Hindu Festival that
honors the god of power and virtue, devotees enter a hypnotic trance during which
time they endure painful types of mutilation—like long silver needles that pierce the
tongue, cheeks, and other body parts.
xPACIFICA/Getty
In the classic test of this hypothesis, Hilgard, Morgan, and MacDonald (1975)
instructed two groups of subjects to immerse one hand in a tank of ice water for
almost a minute. Every 10 seconds, they rated how much pain they felt on a 10-point
scale. In one group, subjects were hypnotized and given the suggestion that they
would feel no pain. In the second group, there was no hypnosis and no suggestion.
The result was that the hypnotized subjects reported less pain than did the control
subjects. We’ll return to this study shortly to find out what it implies about
consciousness. What it implies about pain, however, is clear. Today, studies show
that for people high in hypnotic responsiveness, hypnosis can be used to reduce pain
—and that this effect can be achieved with or without the use of counter-pain images,
such as suggestions that the hand is made of wood or is encased in a heavy
protective glove (Hargadon, Bowers, & Woody, 1995). Not everyone can be
hypnotized, and not all who are hypnotized will gain relief from pain. But the benefits
are common enough that hypnosis is used today in medical settings, and for some,
hypnosis can help in coping with dental work, childbirth, and the chronic pain of
headaches, backaches, and arthritis (Häuser, Hagl, Schmierer, & Hansen, 2016).
Posthypnotic Suggestion
In the situations described thus far, the subject acts on the hypnotist’s suggestions
during the session. In a procedure known as posthypnotic suggestion, the subject
carries out the hypnotist’s suggestion after the session is terminated. You’ve probably
seen this procedure depicted on TV shows. With a snap of the finger, the subject
would emerge from his or her “trance” and reflexively do something odd in response
to a preset cue. But does it really work? It can, but only with some individuals. To
demonstrate the point, Amanda Barnier and Kevin McConkey (1998) gave 120
prepaid postcards to subjects who were high in hypnotic susceptibility and instructed
them, during hypnosis, to mail one postcard every day for four months. Afterward,
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they counted the number of cards received and found that more than half of all the
postcards were sent in accordance with the hypnotic suggestion.
posthypnotic suggestion. A suggestion made to a subject in hypnosis to be
carried out after the induction session is over.
In reality, posthypnotic suggestion lacks dramatic flair. But when it is coupled with
psychological therapy, it has been used effectively to help people with insomnia,
obesity, high blood pressure, and other behavior-related problems (Kirsch,
Montgomery, & Sapirstein, 1995). It can also help speed the healing of warts and
other skin conditions, and help in the medical treatment of asthma, nausea, and
certain other conditions that have a psychological component (Pinnell & Covino,
2000).
Memory Enhancement
As in Hilgard’s classroom demonstration, hypnosis subjects often exhibit
posthypnotic amnesia, an inability to recall events that occurred during the session.
However, these memories have not been permanently erased. In response to a
prearranged signal (“When I snap my fingers, you’ll recall everything that took
place”), subjects can usually retrieve the lost events. Still, research suggests that
hypnosis subjects do often exhibit temporary amnesia—and do so without effort or
intention (Bowers & Woody, 1996).
posthypnotic amnesia. A reported tendency for hypnosis subjects to forget
events that occurred during the induction.
At the other end of the hypnosis-memory spectrum, many hypnotists claim that
the highly focused and relaxed state of mind produced by hypnosis enhances
memory, a phenomenon known as hypermnesia. This claim has its roots in
psychoanalysis—from Freud’s reports that hypnotized patients sometimes relived
repressed traumas from childhood—and has resurfaced in a rash of 1990s and early
21st century cases in which hypnosis was used to dredge up “memories” of child sex
abuse.
hypermnesia. A term referring to the unsubstantiated claim that hypnosis can be
used to facilitate the retrieval of past memories.
When memory fades, this can be challenging for loved ones as well as the
patients. Often the simple exercise of looking through childhood photos can bring
back memories, even if only for a moment.
iStock.com/PeopleImages
In Chapter 6 on memory, we’ll find that people cannot remember events from the
first and second years of life. Yet research shows that people can be induced to
report early childhood memories in hypnosis-like conditions. In one study, subjects
asked for their earliest memories recounted events that occurred at about 3 and 4
years old. But after being induced to shut their eyes, visualize, and focus on the deep
past, 78 percent “recalled” events that occurred before their second birthday and 33
percent even produced events from before their first birthday (Malinoski & Lynn,
1999). In a second study, 40 percent of those who were hypnotized and led to believe
that hypnosis improves memory recounted events that took place before their first
birthday (Green, 1999). Yet, what are the chances that these memories are false?
How do we know that the “recalled” events truly happened to the participants?
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Questions like these are a big reason why the use of hypnosis as a memory aid has
come under some close scrutiny within the legal system.
Psychology Applied: Does Hypnosis Enhance
Eyewitness Testimony?
It was an extraordinary case: A busload of California schoolchildren and their
driver were abducted at gunpoint by three masked kidnappers and held for ransom in
an underground tomb. Somehow, they managed to escape. The driver had tried to
memorize the license plate number of the van the kidnappers used, but he could not
later recall the number. He was then hypnotized by the police and was mentally
transported back to the crime scene. All of a sudden, he blurted out all but one digit of
the license plate—which led to the arrest and conviction of the abductors (Smith,
1983).
This story and others like it raise an intriguing question: Can hypnosis be used to
refresh a witness’s memory? Many police officers seem to think so and use hypnosis
to help eyewitnesses recall details of violent crimes they seem to have forgotten. In
one popular technique, devised by Martin Reiser (1980), subjects under hypnosis are
asked to imagine that they are calmly watching a TV documentary about the event to
be recalled and that they can rewind it, stop it, play it back, slow it down, speed it up,
zoom in for close ups, and turn the sound volume up or down to improve hearing.
Using this technique, police investigators have made some impressive claims about
the memory-enhancing power of hypnosis (Hibbard & Worring, 1996).
The success stories are fascinating, but serious questions remain. When a
hypnotized witness reports a memory, how do we know that the report is accurate?
And if the recollection is later corroborated, how do we know that it was retrieved
because of the hypnosis? To answer these questions, some researchers have
studied actual cases. Others have conducted experiments in which subjects witness
a staged event, report their memory, and then try to recall additional details—either
under hypnosis or in a normal waking state. Consistently, the research has shown
that although people report more information with repeated testing, they also
inadvertently produce more distorted and false “memories” (Dinges et al., 1992;
McConkey & Sheehan, 1995).
Another disturbing outcome of hypnosis is that it places witnesses in a state of
heightened suggestibility. For example, Peter Sheehan and colleagues (1991)
showed 168 subjects a videotape of a staged bank robbery. In it, a man entered a
bank, waved a pistol, warned the tellers not to press an alarm, ordered them to put
the money on the counter, put the money in a bag, and ran out. Subjects were
immediately questioned about the incident. Half were then hypnotized; the others
were not. Moments later, everyone was requestioned by an examiner who
“suggested” that the robber wore a mask over his face, which he did not. All the
hypnotized subjects were then dehypnotized, and everyone was questioned again,
this time by a new examiner.
Did anyone “recall” the robber wearing a mask? If so, how often did this occur? As
illustrated in Figure 4.10, the results were quite striking—and sobering. Subjects were
more likely to incorporate the false suggestion into memory when they were under
hypnosis, and this was particularly true of those who had high or medium scores on a
test of hypnotic susceptibility. Among the most vulnerable subjects—those who were
both highly susceptible and were exposed to a hypnotic suggestion—false memories
were created 63 percent of the time. Other researchers have confirmed this finding,
leading us to conclude that hypnosis adds to the risk that witnesses will make
memory errors and be influenced by misleading questions (Scoboria, Mazzoni,
Kirsch, & Milling, 2002).
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Description
Figure 4.10 Hypnosis and the Suggestible Eyewitness
Source: Adapted from Sheehan, P. W., Statham, D., & Jamieson, G. A.
(1991). Pseudomemory effects and their relationship to level of
susceptibility to hypnosis and state instruction. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 60(1), 130–137. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-
3514.60.1.130
Consider this evidence in light of the fact that eyewitness error is a leading cause
of wrongful convictions (Wise, Sartori, Magnussen, & Safer, 2014). For example,
eyewitness error or misidentification was evident in about 75 percent of 312 cases in
which DNA exonerated a convicted person (The Innocence Project, 2021), and in
about 76 percent of 873 cases reviewed in the National Registry of Exonerations
(Gross & Shaffer, 2012). In an analysis of 1,198 cases of wrongful conviction, Smith
and Cutler (2013) further concluded “that about 50% of the cases of conviction of the
innocent involved mistaken identification” (p. 11), and the American Psychological
Association (2016) estimates that about one of every three eyewitnesses makes an
erroneous identification. It is therefore critical to be aware of this evidence, especially
since hypnosis adds to the risk that witnesses will make memory errors.
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