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look smug and confident. Will this classroom simulation have an impact on your
performance? The answer is, yes, it will.
Jane Elliot, a public school teacher from Riceville, Iowa, demonstrated this in a
powerful way when she decided to expose her students to the impact that negative
stereotypes could have on classroom performance. She divided her students into
categories based on eye color—blue eyes and brown eyes. On the first day of her
experiment, Elliott placed collars on the blue-eyed students and told them that they
were less intelligent and motivated than brown-eyed people. Elliott crafted a
biological reason for the differences, stating that melanin was a marker for
intelligence, and darker eyes demonstrated more melanin. Students believed her
explanation, and the experiment moved on. It did not take long for the blue-eyed
children to act inferior to brown-eyed children, or for them to drop dramatically in
scholastic performance on things such as spelling and math. One blue-eyed girl in
particular, a math whiz, struggled with her multiplication tables (Bloom, 2005). The
evidence is so strong that PBS documented it in A Class Divided, which you can
watch on PBS.org.
But can this effect be found in the lab? In one classic study, Steven Spencer and
others (1999) found that women performed poorly relative to men in a math test when
led to believe that it was the type of test in which there were sex differences favoring
men. Importantly, women performed better, and the male-female difference
disappeared, when they were simply told beforehand that the test was gender
neutral. In another classic study, Jeff Stone and others (1999) tested the hypothesis
that, in the domain of athletic performance, White students would feel threatened by
the popular stereotype that African American athletes are superior. Black and White
college students were told they’d be putting on a miniature golf course as part of a
sports aptitude test. Some students were told that performance required natural
athletic ability, whereas others were told it required intelligence. Performance was
measured by the number of strokes subjects needed to complete the course. Can
you predict the result? When the task was presented as a test of natural athletic
ability, Black students performed better—and White students performed worse. It
seems that everyone is vulnerable. When a stereotype is “in the air,” it is possible that
people fear they will fail, which can make them more likely to do just that (Steele,
Spencer, & Aronson, 2002).
Claude Steele’s work on stereotype threat shows that “invisible” sociocultural
factors are at work in the classroom. When asked how he discovered this effect,
Steele said, “My students and I had been struggling to understand the immeasurable
processes that seemed to undermine the academic performance of certain groups in
society.... Gradually, we were able to describe how people can become intimidated by
the prospect of being reduced to a group stereotype in a domain where a stereotype
about one’s group could apply. When the stereotype is about something important—
like intelligence or, for some, athletic ability— it can put a great deal of pressure on
the person.”
Claude Steele - TeachAIDS Interview via Wikimedia Commons
confirmed to be licensed under the terms of the cc-by-sa-2.0.
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Thinking Like a Psychologist About Thought,
Language, and Intelligence
Psychologists who study thought and language—like those who study learning
and memory—have come to realize that people are complex, “two-headed”
creatures, competent in some ways, flawed in others. Often, we solve difficult
problems through trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, and a great capacity for
creative insight. Yet often we get stuck mentally and fail to find obvious solutions
because of functional fixedness, mental sets, and confirmation biases that keep us
from fully testing our ideas.
Then there’s language. Despite recent successes in teaching apes to
communicate, it is clear that the human capacity for language—whether measured by
semanticity, generativity, or displacement—is impressive and unmatched. Yet it is
also clear that words can be used to shape, and sometimes distort, the way we think.
People are complicated creatures, both competent and flawed at the same time.
The good news is that we have the capacity to improve on the way we think and,
therefore, on our ability to adapt to changing circumstances. Earlier, we saw that
even when we feel stumped on a problem, it is possible to find the insight we need by
representing it in a different way, opening our minds to alternative approaches, or
perhaps just taking a break. There are many ways for us to maximize the use of our
cognitive abilities.
For about a century now, psychologists have been trying to define, measure,
understand, and enhance intelligence, an elusive concept. You can tell by the
frequent use of the Stanford-Binet, Wechsler scales, SAT, and other instruments that
ability testing is a booming enterprise. It’s also one that should be viewed with a
critical eye to safeguard against possible abuses. Intelligence is a many-splendored
concept—more than just IQ, a magical number used to predict school performance.
Intelligence shows up in one person’s flair for writing, in a second person’s ability to
wheel-and-deal in business, and a third person’s fluent mastery of five languages. It’s
the ability to process information with efficiency, generate creative ideas, and use
one’s skills to succeed.
Underlying much of the tension that surrounds the study of intelligence is the
nature versus nurture debate. It is clear that both genetic and environmental factors
contribute to an individual’s intelligence. It’s also clear that because racial and cultural
groups have distinct life experiences, intellectual differences at the group level are
hard to interpret. The same is true of the small differences that exist between males
and females. Finally, it’s important to consider the educational implications of using IQ
tests for identification and placement purposes. On the one hand, objective measures
of intelligence help us to predict academic potential and develop programs suitable
for individual students. On the other hand, IQ tests can set in motion a self-fulfilling
prophecy. Either way, it’s important to keep in mind that intelligence is not a tangible
object but a word that describes the skills that enable you to make a better life for
yourself and others.
SUMMARY
People are rational and irrational at the same time. Why is this so? Is our thought,
language and intelligence shaped by nature, nurture, or both?
Concepts
Research shows that when a concept is activated in a person’s mind, other
related concepts in the semantic network are primed and emerge more readily from
memory. Prototypes, concepts that seem “typical” of a particular category because
they have most of its defining properties, come most readily to mind and have the
strongest influence on our judgments.
Solving Problems
When we cannot find a solution by retrieving the answer from memory, we go
through three steps: representing the problem, generating possible solutions, and
evaluating those solutions.
Representing the Problem
Representing the problem often involves activating concepts from our semantic
memory. It can also involve mental images of visual information and intuitive mental
models of how things work. Our mental models, though useful, are sometimes
inaccurate.
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Generating Solutions
Once we have represented a problem, we generally choose from four basic
problem-solving strategies: trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, and insight. Trial
and error entails trying various solutions until one works. In contrast, an algorithm is
a step-by-step procedure guaranteed to produce a solution eventually. Heuristics are
rules of thumb that lead to quicker but not always accurate solutions. One general
heuristic is means-end analysis, the breaking down of a problem into subgoals.
Another is the use of analogies, which involve taking an old solution as a model for a
new problem. Sometimes, in a flash of insight, a solution pops to mind. In long
problem-solving sessions, people often exhibit the incubation effect, whereby
sudden insight occurs after they take a break.
“Blind Spots” in Problem Solving
Our “blind spots” in problem solving can result from a number of factors. A
problem may be represented incorrectly. Or we may fall into functional fixedness,
thinking of objects only in terms of their usual functions. A mental set, taking us back
to a strategy that worked in the past, can also be a hindrance. And confirmation
biases dispose us to look only for evidence that supports our initial beliefs.
In making everyday decisions, we consistently rely on judgmental heuristics. The
representativeness heuristic leads us to judge an event’s likelihood by its apparent
typicality, so that we ignore numerical probabilities. The availability heuristic is the
tendency for estimates of event likelihood to be influenced by how easily instances
come to mind. The anchoring effect is the tendency for an initial value to serve as a
reference point in making a new judgment. Despite the various biases, people are
consistently overconfident about their judgment abilities.
Language
Language is a form of communication consisting of a system of sounds, words,
meanings, and rules for their combination.
Characteristics of Human Language
All languages share the properties of semanticity, generativity, and displacement.
Semanticity refers to the fact that language has separate units of meaning. The
smallest meaningful units are morphemes. In all spoken languages, morphemes are
made up of basic sounds called phonemes.
Through the property of generativity, language can turn a finite number of words
into an infinite variety of expressions. Syntax, the formal grammar, provides the rules
for transforming the deep structure of a statement into various possible surface
structures. Finally, all languages are capable of displacement, or communication
about things beyond the here-and-now.
Emergence of Language
Language development proceeds in a regular sequence: from cooing to babbling,
single words, telegraphic speech, and full sentences. Evidence supports the view
that humans are specially “wired” for language, and that there is a critical period for
learning it.
The Relationship Between Thought and Language
It is assumed that thought gives rise to language, but does language also shape
thought? What is the relationship between these cognitive activities?
The Linguistic-Relativity Hypothesis
Going beyond the traditional view that thought shapes language, Whorf’s
linguistic-relativity hypothesis predicts that language can shape the way we think.
Culture, Language, and the Way We Think
Some research indicates that people from different cultures think differently, but
investigators disagree about the interpretation. Today, research suggests that
language influences but does not completely determine thought.
Intelligence
Many psychologists define intelligence as a capacity to learn from experience
and adapt successfully to one’s environment. This capacity can be tested with
different measurements.
Intelligence Tests
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In the early 1900s, Binet and Simon developed a test to determine a student’s
mental age—the average age of children who achieve a given level of performance.
Terman revised the test and renamed it the Stanford-Binet. He also scored the test
by means of an intelligence quotient (IQ): mental age divided by chronological age
and multiplied by 100. Today, an IQ represents a person’s performance relative to the
average of same-age peers.
To distinguish between different aspects of intelligence, the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS) yields separate verbal and performance scores. There are
also Wechsler scales for children.
In contrast to the Stanford-Binet and Wechlser measures, which are individually
administered, aptitude tests like the SAT and ACT are given in groups.
Are Intelligence Tests Accurate?
To be accurate, a test must be standardized, reliable, and valid. Standardization
means that the test provides a standard of norms that can be used to interpret a
given score. Reliability means that the results are consistent. Test-retest reliability
ensures that a test will yield similar results at different times; split-half reliability
ensures that different forms of the test will produce similar results. Validity is the
extent to which the test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
Are Intelligence Tests Biased?
Some say that intelligence tests are culturally biased because scores are
influenced by such background factors as the test taker’s racial or ethnic group.
Advocates of testing note that race differences occur even on “culture-fair” items and
that intelligence tests do predict academic performance.
The Nature of Intelligence
There are theories concerning the very nature of intelligence—what it is, where it
comes from, and how it is developed. Three theories have been discussed.
Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence
Crystallized intelligence is a person’s factual knowledge, whereas fluid
intelligence is a person’s ability to reason, learn new information, and think flexibly to
solve problems. Cattell believed that fluid intelligence helped facilitate crystallized
intelligence, in that the more new information a person sought and understood, the
more factual knowledge was gained.
General Intelligence
Spearman was the first to speak of general intelligence (g), a broad factor
underlying all mental abilities. Spearman found that all intellectual abilities are linked
to g. Other researchers have divided intelligence into various components.
Gardner’s “Frames of Mind”
Partly because of the existence of prodigies and persons with savant
syndrome, Gardner proposed a theory of multiple intelligences. According to
Gardner, different systems in the brain produce seven different types of intelligence:
linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and
intrapersonal. The last four types stretch the concept of intelligence beyond traditional
notions.
The Great Intelligence Debates
Because test scores affect so many aspects of our lives, debates about
intelligence testing have been heated.
Nature and Nurture
People have long disputed the extent to which intelligence is determined by
nature (genetics) and by nurture (environment). Studies of twins and other family
members appear to show that heredity accounts for 60 to 75 percent of the
population variation in intelligence. Others now suggest that environmental factors
multiply the effects of genes. The publication of The Bell Curve brought this issue into
the limelight.
The Racial Gap
Are group differences in average IQ and SAT scores brought about by nature or
by nurture? This is debatable. But research suggests that environmental factors can
help to explain the relatively low scores by African Americans and the relatively high
scores by Asian Americans.
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Gender Differences
Whereas girls score somewhat higher on tests involving language, boys on
average perform better in mathematical and visual-spatial tasks. However, research
has found that in matrilineal societies, these visual-spatial performance differences
between females and males disappear. Furthermore, a global study revealed that
countries with smaller gaps in equality have smaller gender gaps in math and larger
gender gaps in reading. Such research makes a strong argument that the
environment, and not so much biology, influences language, mathematical, and
visual-spatial performance. Thus, beliefs in hardwired gender differences have
profound implications for parents and teachers.
Education
According to studies of the self-fulfilling prophecy, teacher expectations
influence student performance. If teachers expect little of a child because of a low IQ
score, that child will likely perform accordingly.
Recent studies of stereotype threat also show that social and cultural groups feel
threatened by negative stereotypes about them, which can make them anxious and
impairs performance. However, the effects of stereotype threat are not consistently
replicable.
Critical Thinking
Thinking Critically About Thought, Language, and
Intelligence
1. Imagine that you are developing a workshop to teach people to become
better problem solvers. What specific strategies would you include? What
suggestions would you give to promote the use of insight? What specific tactics
would you recommend to eliminate the blind spots?
2. Suppose scientists invented a pill that would allow you to make all your
decisions in a completely rational manner. Would you choose to take such a pill?
Why or why not?
3. Do computers think? Do they have language capability? Why or why not?
4. Discuss the debate concerning one intelligence versus multiple intelligences.
Which view do you believe?
5. Discuss the controversy surrounding the use of IQ and other standardized
tests of intelligence. Explain how IQ tests might be both biased and accurate. In
what ways might IQ scores influence intelligence rather than simply reflect it?
6. In what ways do genetic and environmental forces interact to determine
intelligence? What practical implications does this have for the way we educate
our children?
Career Connection: Education
Teacher
Students who also earn a teaching certificate along with their bachelor’s degree in
psychology can become teachers. Psychology undergraduates can find jobs teaching
nearly any subject matter, including psychology at all levels of the U.S. education
system, from kindergarten to high school, and even occasionally in colleges and
universities. These schools may be public or private, but the responsibilities of
teachers in all environments are largely the same. A background in psychology can
allow a teacher to better understand human development and communication,
improving the effectiveness of their teaching in preparing students for life and lifelong
learning.
Key skills for this role that psychology students learn to develop:
Effective communication in presentations and written works
Self-regulation and collaboration
Innovative and integrative thinking and problem solving
Key Terms
algorithm (p. 262)
analogies (p. 262)
anchoring effect (p. 267)
availability heuristic (p. 267)
babbling (p. 271)
concept (p. 258)
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confirmation bias (p. 265)
crystallized intelligence (p. 281)
displacement (p. 270)
fluid intelligence (p. 281)
functional fixedness (p. 265)
general intelligence (p. 282)
generativity (p. 270)
heuristics (p. 262)
images (p. 260)
incubation effect (p. 263)
insight (p. 263)
intelligence (p. 275)
intelligence quotient (p. 277)
language (p. 269)
linguistic-relativity hypothesis (p. 273)
means-end analysis (p. 262)
mental age (p. 276)
mental models (p. 261)
mental set (p. 265)
morpheme (p. 270)
multiple intelligences (p. 282)
phonemes (p. 269)
phrases (p. 270)
prodigies (p. 284)
prototypes (p. 258)
reliability (p. 279)
representativeness heuristic (p. 266)
savant syndrome (p. 284)
self-fulfilling prophecy (p. 293)
semanticity (p. 269)
sentence (p. 270)
split-half reliability (p. 279)
standardization (p. 278)
Stanford-Binet (p. 276)
stereotype threat (p. 294)
syntax (p. 270)
telegraphic speech (p. 271)
test-retest reliability (p. 279)
trial and error (p. 261)
validity (p. 280)
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) (p. 277)
Descriptions of Images and Figures
Back to Figure
The years are plotted on the X-axis, ranging from 1920 to 1990, at intervals of 10
years. The I, Q scores are plotted against the Y-axis, with a range from 70 to 130, at
intervals of 10.
The estimated I, Q scores are presented in the following table.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. Long-term memory can be pictured as a
complex web of concepts, some of which are cognitively closer than others. When
one concept is activated, others nearby in the network are primed.
The network diagram shows the connections between 4 concepts and their traits.
The central concept is a bird. The bird has the following 5 traits.
1. It flies.
2. It has wings.
3. It has feathers.
4. It has eyes.
5. It breathes.
The bird is linked to the concept of an animal. The animal has the following 4
traits.
1. It has legs.
2. It breathes.
3. It has eyes.
4. It has ears.
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The bird is also linked to the concept of a robin. The robin has the following 5
traits.
1. It has wings.
2. It has feathers.
3. It has a red breast.
4. It has eyes.
5. It is an animal.
The bird is finally linked to the concept of a chicken. The chicken has the following
7 traits.
1. It lays eggs.
2. It has wings.
3. It can be food.
4. It is an animal.
5. It lives on a farm.
6. It pecks.
7. It clucks.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. Imagine a capital letter T. Rotate it 90
degrees to the right. Put a triangle directly to the left of the figure so that it is pointing
to the right. Now rotate the figure 90 degrees to the right. Got it? Now look at the
images above and pick the correct one. You can check your answer by drawing the
figure on paper.
The 4 diagrams are as follows.
1. Diagram 1. A T shape has been turned through 180 degrees to that the bar of
the T is at the bottom. An arrowhead is positioned on top of the vertical ascender
of the T. The arrow points upwards.
2. Diagram 2. A T shape has been turned through 180 degrees to that the bar of
the T is at the bottom. An arrowhead is positioned below the bar of the T. The
arrow points downwards.
3. Diagram 3. A T shape has been turned through 180 degrees to that the bar of
the T is at the bottom. An arrowhead is positioned on top of the vertical ascender
of the T. The arrow points downwards.
4. Diagram 4. A T shape has been turned through 180 degrees to that the bar of
the T is at the bottom. An arrowhead is positioned alongside the vertical
ascender of the T. The arrow points to the right.
Back to Figure
Section A features a drawing of a tube curved into a spiral shape. A marble is
positioned at the top of the tube. A curved dotted line represents the path that most
subjects thought the marble would travel along after completing its journey down the
spiral tube. A straight dashed line represents the actual path the marble would take.
Section B. A glass is shown in a tilted position above a bowl. The surface of the
water within the glass is represented by many people as being diagonal. The
horizontal dashed line represents the actual position of the surface of the water.
An author introduction reads as follows.
Section A. Subjects were asked to draw the path that a marble would take as it
exited this curved tube. Most subjects incorrectly drew a curved path, represented by
a dotted line, rather than the correct straight path, represented by a dashed line. Our
mental models of motion are often wrong.
Section B. In this task, subjects were asked to draw a line to illustrate the surface
of water in the tilted container. Although the line should be depicted as perfectly
horizontal to the ground, as shown by the dotted line, many people placed it at the
tilted angle shown above as the solid line.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. The key is to realize that you can’t link all
four chains. To solve the problem, open all 3 links on one of the four chains, this costs
6 cents. Then use these open links to join together the 3 remaining chains, which
costs 9 cents.
To solve the puzzle, arrange 3 chains in the shape of triangle, with each chain
representing a side of the triangle. Take the remaining chain and break all the links.
Cost of opening the links is 6 cents, 3 times 2. Use the 3 open links to join together
the chains at each corner of the triangle and then close them. Cost of closure is 9
cents, 3 times 3.
Back to Figure
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An author introduction reads as follows. To solve this problem, you need to realize
that all 4 lines must extend beyond the square of dots.
The dots are positioned in 3 columns and 3 rows and form a square shape with a
dot in the middle. To solve the puzzle all nine dots must be connected with four
straight lines without lifting your pencil from the paper. The solution is as follows.
Let’s label the dots to make things clearer. Row 1 contains 3 dots, from left to right
these are now labeled, A1, B1, and C1. Row 2 is labeled, A2, B2, and C2. Row 3 is
labeled A3, B3, and C3. The solution, with all 9 dots connected by 4 lines, is as
follows.
Line 1. Draw a diagonal line from C3 to B2 to A1.
Line 2. Draw a vertical line from A1 to A2 to A3. Imagine there is an A4 dot
and continue drawing the line until you reach the imaginary A4 dot.
Line 3. Draw a diagonal line at 45 degrees from your imaginary A4 dot, the
line will pass through B3 and C2. Again, imagine there is another dot at D1 and
continue drawing the line until you reach your imaginary D1 dot.
Line 4. Draw a horizontal line from your imaginary D1 dot from right to left,
passing through C1 and B1, and finishing at A1.
All the dots are connected by 4 lines.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. To solve this problem, you need to realize
that the box can be used not only as a container but also as a shelf.
The illustration shows the box of map pins has been emptied onto the tabletop.
The box from the map pins is then used as a shelf and is attached to the wall using
the map pins. The candle is placed on the makeshift shelf. The matches are used to
light the candle.
Back to Figure
The 4 award requests for damages are plotted on the X-axis. The Average
amount of damages awarded are plotted against the Y-axis, with a range from zero to
2 million dollars, at intervals if 200,000 dollars.
The data points are presented in the following table.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. Subjects who saw figures like those
shown in column A, later redrew these figures from memory in ways that fit the
different labels they had been given in column B.
The details of the original figure, the pairs of labels for each original figure, and
the sample drawings in response to the labels, are presented in the following table.
Back to Figure
The Wechsler I, Q scores are plotted on the X-axis, with a range from 40 to 160.
The scores are divided into 8 class intervals. The number of scores are plotted on the
Y-axis.
The bell curve has a symmetrical distribution. 68 per cent of scores fall in the
middle two class intervals of the possible range of scores. 95 per cent fall in the
middle 4 intervals. Only a few scores appear towards the extremes of the range.
The percentages for the class intervals of the I, Q scores are presented in the
following table.
The Math and Verbal S, A, T scores are plotted on the X-axis, with a range from
200 to 800. The scores are divided into 6 class intervals. The number of scores are
plotted on the Y-axis.
The bell curve has a symmetrical distribution. 68 per cent of scores fall in the
middle two class intervals of the possible range of scores. 95 per cent fall in the
middle 4 intervals. Only a few scores appear towards the extremes of the range.
The percentages for the class intervals of the Math and Verbal S, A, T scores are
presented in the following table.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. In this test, the person is given a series of
matrices and must complete each one by selecting the appropriate symbol from the
accompanying choices.
The diagram contains a green rectangle which features a black pattern that
resembles a small flower with 4 petals. The pattern is repeated across the rectangle.
An oval shape with a flat left-hand side has been removed from the lower right-hand
quadrant of the rectangle. Below the rectangle are 6 options for filling the missing
area of the rectangle. The options are labeled, A to F, and each contains a different
pattern. The options are as follows.
1. A single small flower pattern.
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2. A repeated circular pattern.
3. A pattern of crosses.
4. A pattern of 2 flowers.
5. A single large flower pattern.
6. A repeated pattern of small flowers.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. Intelligence increases significantly from
childhood, at age 9, to adolescence, at age 12, to young adulthood, at age 17.
The 3 age groups, Childhood, Adolescence, and Young Adulthood, are plotted on
the X-axis. The heritability of intelligence scores are plotted against the Y-axis, with a
range from 0.0 to 0.7, at intervals of 0.1.
The 3 dots are connected by a line that emphasizes the increase in the
intelligence scores as age increases.
The estimated data points are presented in the following table, including the
margins of error.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. Dickens and Flynn theorize that genes
predispose young children toward varying degrees of initial success in school. These
early experiences then steer the children into environments that later constrain or
facilitate intellectual development, which increases the differences by adulthood.
On the left of the diagram is a strand of D, N, A. The strand is labeled, Genetic
Disposition, and 2 arrows lead from left to right and form 2 pathways as follows.
Pathway 1. Bright children. 4 stages of development.
1. Higher Intelligence.
2. Achieve high awards.
3. Find school stimulating.
4. Achieve high school scores.
Pathway 2. Not as bright children.
1. Lower Intelligence.
2. Do not achieve high awards.
3. Find school unstimulating.
4. Achieve low school scores.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. S, A T scores vary based on race and
ethnicity, but those variations should not be used as evidence for biological
superiority.
Scores are provided for Reading, Math, and Writing. The scores are broken down
for the following 8 racial and ethnic groups.
1. American Indian or Alaska Native.
2. Asian, Asian American, or Pacific Islander.
3. Black or African American.
4. Mexican or Mexican American.
5. Other Hispanic, Latino, or Latin American.
6. Puerto Rican.
7. White.
8. Other.
The scores for each racial or ethnic group are collected under each S, A, T Group
of Reading, Math, and Writing. The S, A, T scores are plotted against the Y-axis, with
a range from zero to 700, at intervals of 100.
The data points are presented in the following table.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. These are the cognitive test scores of
future college graduates as they moved from grades 8 through 16, the later referring
to college graduation. Indicating the vital equalizing role of education, the initial gap
between Black and White students was narrowed by the time they completed college.
The grades completed, from 8 to 16 are plotted on the X-axis, with intervals of 4
years. The test scores are plotted on the Y-axis, with a range of minus 1 to plus 1, at
intervals of 1. The graph contains 2 data lines, one for white students and one for
Black students. All of the test subjects went on to become college graduates. The
data shows that attainment levels for Black students improve dramatically at college
and the gap to white students narrows significantly.
The estimated data points are presented in the following table.
Back to Figure
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An author introduction reads as follows. In more gender-equal cultures, the math
gender gap disappears, and the reading gender gap becomes larger. Gender gaps in
mathematics and reading are calculated as the difference between the average girls’
score and the average boys’ score. A subset of countries is shown here. In many
countries, on average, girls perform more poorly than boys in mathematics. In all
countries, girls perform better than boys in reading.
The gender gaps for 10 countries are plotted on the X-axis. The 10 countries are
as follows.
1. Turkey.
2. South Korea.
3. Italy.
4. USA.
5. Portugal.
6. France.
7. Poland.
8. Norway.
9. Sweden.
10. Iceland.
The test score differences between girls and boys are plotted against the Y-axis,
with a range from minus 30 to plus 70, at intervals of 10.
The estimated data points are presented in the following table for both Math and
Reading by country.
An author introduction reads as follows. The gender gap in mathematics and
reading correlates with country measure of gender status within the culture, one of
which measures is the Gender Inequality Index. Larger values of Gender Gap Index
point to a better average position of women in society.
The 10 countries are plotted on the X-axis. The Gender Gap Index score is plotted
on the Y-axis, with a range from 0.5 to 0.8, at increments of 0.5. The estimated data
points are presented in the following table. The scores correlate to the gender gap in
educational scores for each country.
Back to Figure
The diagram consists of 3 pairs of shapes built from blocks. The test involves the
viewer deciding whether the pairs of shapes are the same or different. The shapes
have been rotated to change the perspective.
The following descriptions of the shapes are based on a grid system to aid
visualization. The grid consists of rows labeled with a letter and columns labeled with
a number. The lower left-hand block is therefore labeled A1. If a block is positioned
directly beside it, then this block is A2. If a block is positioned directly above it, then
this block is labeled B1.
Pair A. The 2 blocks under comparison are as follows.
Pair A, Block 1.
A1.
B1.
C1, C2, C3, C4.
D4.
E4. Two further blocks jut forward at a right angle forward from E4.
Pair A, Block 2.
A1.
B1.
C1, C2, C3, C4.
D4.
E4. Two further blocks jut forward at a right angle forward from E4.
Pair B. The 2 blocks under comparison are as follows.
Pair B, Block 1.
A1.
B1.
C1, C2, C3, C4.
Three blocks jut forward at a right angle forward from C4.
D4.
Pair B, Block 2.
A1.
B1.
C1, C2, C3, C4.
Three blocks jut forward at a right angle forward from C4.
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