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D. Hahnloser
Recommendations andConclusions
The current literature suggests that there is no difference in morbidity and functional outcome between closure and non-closure of the rectal defect after transanal excision. Furthermore, ben­ets of closure remain unclear. However, no study was specically designed to answer this particular question. Therefore, the decision to close rectal wall defects may be left to the sur­geon’s preference and skills.
We recommend to close all large full- thickness defects if possible. It might be sometimes neces­sary to further mobilize the rectal wall to allow a tension-free closure. In large defects we start suturing laterally on both sides joining in the mid­dle. If the defect cannot be closed “watertight,” we recommend to leave it open. Marsupialization stitches of the rectal wall to the mesorectum are of little use. Early endoscopy after 6–10 weeks might be indicated to exclude or treat narrowing of the lumen by balloon dilatation. Medium-sized and small full-thickness defects as well as all par­tial-thickness excisions are left open as they will granulate rapidly and be relined with neomucosa; stricturing and stenosis are extremely rare. Results from the ESD (endoscopic submucosal dissec­tion) literature with comparable wounds to par­tial-thickness excisions demonstrate that stenosis never occurred in cases with <90% circumferen­tial extent of mucosal defect [18]. Because post­TAMIS excision bleeding can occur when the excision defect is left open, keeping the patient in-house for observation is encouraged.

References

1. Hahnloser D, Cantero R, Salgado G, Dindo D, Rega
D, Delrio P. Transanal minimal invasive surgery for rectal lesions: should the defect be closed? Color Dis. 2015;17(5):397–402.
2. Molina G, Bordeianou L, Shellito P, Sylla P.Transanal
endoscopic resection with peritoneal entry: a word of caution. Surg Endosc. 2016;30(5):1816–25.
3. Rimonda R, Arezzo A, Arolfo S, Salvai A, Morino
M.TransAnal Minimally Invasive Surgery (TAMIS) with SILS Port versus Transanal Endoscopic Microsurgery (TEM): a comparative experimental study. Surg Endosc. 2013;27:3762.
4. Restivo A, Zorcolo L, D'Alia G, Cocco F, Cossu A,
Scintu F, etal. Risk of complications and long-term
functional alterations after local excision of rec­tal tumors with transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM). Int J Color Dis. 2016;31(2):257–66.
5. Bignell MB, Ramwell A, Evans JR, Dastur N, Simson JN. Complications of transanal endoscopic micro­surgery (TEMS): a prospective audit. Color Dis. 2010;12(7 Online):e99–103.
6. Atallah S, Albert M, Larach S.Transanal minimally invasive surgery: a giant leap forward. Surg Endosc. 2010;24(9):2200–5.
7. Lorenz C, Nimmesgern T, Back M, Langwieler TE.Transanal single port microsurgery (TSPM) as a modied technique of transanal endoscopic microsur­gery (TEM). Surg Innov. 2010;17(2):160–3.
8. Ragupathi M, Haas EM.Transanal endoscopic video­assisted excision: application of single-port access. JSLS. 2011;15(1):53–8.
9. Lim SB, Seo SI, Lee JL, Kwak JY, Jang TY, Kim CW, et al. Feasibility of transanal minimally inva­sive surgery for mid-rectal lesions. Surg Endosc. 2012;26(11):3127–32.
10. Perez RO, Habr-Gama A, Sao Juliao GP, Proscurshim I, Scanavini Neto A, Gama-Rodrigues J. Transanal endoscopic microsurgery for residual rectal cancer after neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy is associ­ated with signicant immediate pain and hospital read­mission rates. Dis Colon Rectum. 2011;54(5):545–51.
11. Ramirez JM, Aguilella V, Arribas D, Martinez M. Transanal full-thickness excision of rectal tumours: should the defect be sutured? A randomized controlled trial. Color Dis. 2002;4(1):51–5.
12. Lee L, Althoff A, Edwards K, Albert MR, Atallah SB, Hunter IA, et al. Outcomes of closed versus open defects after local excision of rectal neoplasms: a multi-institutional matched analysis. Dis Colon Rectum. 2018;61(2):172–8.
13. Noura S, Ohue M, Miyoshi N, Yasui M.Signicance of defect closure following transanal local full­thickness excision of rectal malignant tumors. Mol Clin Oncol. 2016;5(4):449–54.
14. Brown C, Raval MJ, Phang PT, Karimuddin AA.The surgical defect after transanal endoscopic microsur­gery: open versus closed management. Surg Endosc. 2017;31(3):1078–82.
15. Menahem B, Alves A, Morello R, Lubrano J. Should the rectal defect be closed following transanal local excision of rectal tumors? A system­atic review and meta-analysis. Tech Coloproctol. 2017;21(12):929–36.
16. Herman RM, Richter P, Walega P, Popiela T.Anorectal sphincter function and rectal barostat study in patients following transanal endoscopic microsurgery. Int J Color Dis. 2001;16(6):370–6.
17. Valsdottir EB, Yarandi SS, Marks JH, Marks GJ.Quality of life and fecal incontinence after trans­anal endoscopic microsurgery for benign and malig­nant rectal lesions. Surg Endosc. 2014;28(1):193–202.
18. Hayashi T, Kudo SE, Miyachi H, Sakurai T, Ishigaki T, Yagawa Y, et al. Management and risk factor of stenosis after endoscopic submucosal dissec­tion for colorectal neoplasms. Gastrointest Endosc. 2017;86(2):358–69.
Operative andPerioperative Outcomes
ElenaA.T.Vikis, Anne-MarieDufresne, andGeorgeMelich
12

Introduction

Traditionally, rectal neoplasms that were not resectable by colonoscopy required segmental oncologic resection, either via abdominoperineal or low anterior resection. These procedures come with a high risk of operative and postoperative complications that can result in signicant patient morbidity as well as signicant perioperative costs. Transanal minimally invasive surgery (TAMIS) emerged in 2009 [1], as there was a need for a more widely accessible (easier setup, easier to learn, less expensive) approach to trans­anal endoscopic excision that was safe and equiv­alent to transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM) for removal of rectal lesions [2]. TAMIS is now a well-established technique for removal of benign lesions and select early rectal cancers (T1) not resectable by endoscopy. This chapter describes the operative and perioperative out­comes associated with TAMIS, emphasizing the technique and complications of this procedure.
E. A. T. Vikis (*) Royal Columbian and Eagle Ridge Hospitals, Department of Surgery, New Westminster, BC, Canada
A.-M. Dufresne Royal Columbian Hospital, Department of Colorectal Surgery, New Westminster, BC, Canada
G. Melich Royal Columbian Hospital, Department of Surgery, New Westminster, BC, Canada

Intraoperative Complications

Peritoneal Entry
One of the complications of TAMIS is potential abdominal entry, particularly for rectal lesions located above the peritoneal reection [35]. In the literature, peritoneal entry ranges from 10% to 28% [4, 6, 7] and has been described in trans­anal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM) as an expected event for high-risk lesions [8]. In the authors’ (unpublished) experience, there were nine cases of unplanned intraperitoneal entry out of 230 (3.9%). Abdominal entry has been described as primarily in woman of small body habitus with low peritoneal reections and gener­ally in anterior lesions above 10cm from the anal verge. Our data suggests a relatively equal distri­bution of males and females (ve males and four females) and generally anterior or lateral lesions ranging from 8 to 12cm from the anal verge [5].
Options for repair include transanal repair via the TAMIS platform, laparoscopy, or laparotomy. Occasionally, large defects can even require seg­mental resection if the defect is not amenable to simple local closure. Generally, the defect can be closed via the TAMIS platform using laparoscopic needle drivers and a 3-0 barbed self- locking absorb­able suture. This requires a stable pneumoperito­neum and the conversion to general anesthesia if the procedure is initiated under spinal anesthesia. Though local repair is the ideal approach, if unable
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 S. Atallah (ed.), Transanal Minimally Invasive Surgery (TAMIS) and Transanal Total Mesorectal Excision (taTME), https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11572-2_12
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to maintain stable pneumorectum, consideration can be given to laparoscopic transabdominal repair either via direct closure of the defect or segmental resection of the rectum. Generally, given the rela­tive ease of adoption of TAMIS suturing techniques for those who have mastered laparoscopy, closure of the defect should be done routinely, so that in more challenging closures such as peritoneal breach, conversion to laparoscopy can be avoided.
Caycedo etal. [7] describe ve peritoneal vio­lations in 50 cases (10%). All peritoneal viola­tions were repaired using the TAMIS platform and AirSeal® Insufation System (ConMed, Inc., Utica, NY, USA). The authors of this article recommended not operating on anterior lesions suspected to be above the peritoneal reection if the surgeon is not facile at laparoscopic suturing, as they carry a high risk of peritoneal entry. Our current data suggests an unplanned intraperito­neal entry rate of 3.9%, where repair was primary performed by intracorporeal suturing via the TAMIS platform (6 of 9 patients), while 2 patients required conversion to laparoscopy to close the defect and 1 necessitated a laparoscopic low anterior resection, as the defect was too large to close primarily. Subcostal needle catheterization using a 14-gauge needle in the left upper abdo­men at Palmer’s point was used to evacuate the intra-abdominal CO2 and facilitate transanal repair, with successful completion of the surgery in 3 of the 6 patients who had repair transanally. Interestingly, one patient who sustained a perito­neal violation went on to have two further TAMIS procedures for recurring adenomas in the same position (despite clear circumferential margins on previous TAMIS excisions), and these two further TAMIS local excisions were not compli­cated by peritoneal entry, likely secondary to scarring from the initial procedure [5].
In a series (pending publication), the applica­tion of a transanal laparoscopic stapling device is described that could circumvent this complica­tion by simultaneously removing lesions while closing the defect that are suspected to be above the peritoneal reection [9]. This article exam­ines TAMIS operations for local excision whereby a laparoscopic stapler is used to dene, remove, and seal the defect, all with full- thickness
E. A. T. Vikis et al.
Fig. 12.1 Intraoperative view of the rectal polyp being stapled with a laparoscopic Echelon stapler
complete excisions of the rectal lesions (see Figs.12.1, 12.2, and 12.3).
Diverting ileostomy has also been described [10] but is generally not advised if no major fecal contamination has occurred and primary repair is successful.
Vaginal Entry andRectovaginal Fistulae
Vaginal entry can occur for anterior lesions in women. Inltrating the rectovaginal septum with local anesthetic and digitizing the vagina during dissection can help to dene the planes and pre­vent vaginal trauma. Keller etal. [10] describe an electrocautery injury to the vaginal wall that healed with conservative measures. Very early in our own TAMIS experience, we described one case of vaginal entry that occurred for removal of an anteriorly located neuroendocrine tumor. This was recognized intraoperatively and primarily repaired but recurred within 30days with a clini­cally apparent rectovaginal stula. The approach to wound care was irrigation with daily enemas and broad-spectrum oral antibiotics to encourage healing as per treatment of other traumatic recto­vaginal injuries. The stula was deemed closed at 60days and has remained closed. Of course, if rectovaginal stula occurs, other operative techniques can be employed as described in the section below on long-term complications.
12 Operative andPerioperative Outcomes
Fig. 12.2 End result of the closure of the rectal defect with a laparoscopic stapler
dissection (nb: care must be taken to assure the gauze sponge does not “drift up” due to the active pneumorectum, as this has been described by TAMIS surgeons). Retrieval of this sponge after suturing of the defect conrms an open lumen. In addition, if there is any doubt, or the sponge was not utilized, a patent lumen can be conrmed with a rigid proctosigmoidoscope in the operating room or by simply advancing the camera lens (used for TAMIS) beyond the area of local excision.
119
Fig. 12.3 Flexible sigmoidoscopy 3months after a sta­pled TAMIS
Inadvertent Closure ofRectal Lumen
Closure of the rectal lumen is a potential risk in any anorectal procedure, and, therefore, extreme vigi­lance is required when doing any signicant inter­vention after removal of the specimen in TAMIS, particularly after removal of large or circumferen­tial lesions. This has been described in stapled hemorrhoidopexy [11] and could potentially be an issue in TAMIS as well. A simple approach to iden­tify the rectal lumen and keep it patent throughout the procedure is to insert a small sponge into the rectal lumen proximal to the lesion at the start of
Intraoperative Hemorrhage
Intraoperative bleeding is rare, as electrocautery is usually sufcient for hemostasis. However, a laparoscopic tissue sealer device or laparoscopic clip applier via the TAMIS platform can always be used, if necessary.

Short-Term Complications

Postoperative Hemorrhage
Generally, postoperative bleeding is uncommon if hemostasis has been maintained throughout the procedure. Nevertheless, it has been described in up to 10% of patients, occasionally even requiring
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blood transfusion [5, 7, 12]. As our most com­mon short-term complication, postoperative rec­tal bleeding occurred in 25 of 230 cases, with only 5 requiring intervention (2.2%). Of the ve patients who required blood transfusion, one was taken back to the operating room the same opera­tive day, while two others were treated endoscop­ically on postoperative days 16 and 17, respectively. Successful cessation of bleeding was achieved by hemostatic agent placement or endoscopic clipping [5].
Closure of the defect has been thought to inuence hemostasis. While numerous studies demonstrate a trend toward a higher bleeding incidence [1216] leaving the defect open, none show statistical signicance. Regardless, an attempt to close all defects could potentially inuence clinically signicant bleeding and is a mandatory technique to master in cases of poten­tial peritoneal breach. Since TAMIS is a novel procedure, utilizing existing techniques for hemostasis postoperatively in other anorectal procedures, such as hemorrhoidectomy, can be useful. Rosen et al. [17] treated post­hemorrhoidectomy bleeding using hemostatic agent (Gelfoam) packing at the site of the defect. In TAMIS, in addition to suturing, placement of a hemostatic agent, such as Surgicel or Gelfoam, can be considered.
Urinary Retention andInfection
lesions, and 13 had not been taking prophylactic perioperative tamsulosin, which has now been introduced at our center as part of a routine pro­tocol. A clinical trial in progress TEMPOUR [19] addresses the use of perioperative tamsulosin in TEM, which is hypothesized to decrease the inci­dence of urinary retention, and this data may be translatable to TAMIS practices for local exci­sion of rectal neoplasia. This could be a simple and cost-effective approach to minimizing this complication.
Subcutaneous Emphysema
Subcutaneous emphysema has been described previously in TAMIS [4] and is generally an uneventful complication in similar transanal pro­cedures [20]. However, it can lead to intraopera­tive hypercapnia [21] and is occasionally an indication of peritoneal breach. If ventilatory dif­culty is encountered secondary to hypercarbia, decreasing the rectal insufation pressure, com­pleting the procedure quickly, and potentially delaying extubation can all be utilized [22]. At our center, the overall rate of subcutaneous emphysema for n=230 was 0.4%. Generally, this is a self-limited complication and is managed conservatively. Rarely, patients can become symptomatic and may even develop free air on plain radiographs [5].
Urinary retention is a frequent postoperative complication of anorectal procedures and cer­tainly can occur after TAMIS.Generally, urinary catheter insertion is not required for a short oper­ation with no hospital stay. When utilized, cathe­ters increase the risk of urinary retention and infection. In TAMIS, it has been suggested that circumferential lesions predispose patients to uri­nary retention [7] and replacement of the Foley catheter for urinary retention has been shown to increase the incidence of urinary tract infection [18]. Urinary retention is reported to occur from 2% to 19% of patients after TAMIS [7, 12, 18]. Our data suggest a rate of 7% with 13 men and 2 women, having clinically signicant urinary retention. Of these 15 patients, 8 had anterior
Postoperative Pain
For most patients, pain is minimal after TAMIS.It is a concern mostly for lesions below or near the dentate line. A common practice with other ano­rectal procedures is to prescribe metronidazole to patients to reduce postoperative pain. A meta­analysis in 2018 [23] demonstrated that both topi­cal and oral metronidazole were effective in managing postoperative pain after hemorrhoidec­tomy. Given its anti-inammatory effects and proven safety in other anorectal procedures, met­ronidazole can be prescribed for a total of 5–7days as an efcient and cost-effective treatment for post-TAMIS pain, particularly for patients who have undergone ultra-low-lying excisions [24].
12 Operative andPerioperative Outcomes
121
Fecal Incontinence
The equipment for TAMIS includes an access channel that is placed into the anal canal for the duration of the procedure. This sustained anal dilatation could potentially be a concern for con­tinence after the surgery. A descriptive, prospec­tive study was published in 2015 studying the impact of an anal port on anorectal function dur­ing TEM/TEO procedures [25]. The baseline and the voluntary contraction pressures were decreased at 1 and 4 months after the surgery. However, there was no correlation with clinical incontinence. The TEM/TEO instrumentation is rigid at 40mm in diameter, compared to 30mm for the exible TAMIS port [26], suggesting that there would be less inuence on continence with the TAMIS procedure.
Schiphorst and Clermonts [27, 28] examined long-term functional outcomes post TAMIS, and, ultimately, there was no clinically signicant impact on continence. Schiphorst’s study mea­sured functional results after TAMIS.While 51% of the patients had normal continence prior to the surgery, 17% (3/18) of those had worse continence after TAMIS.Interestingly, in the remaining 49% of patients with previously impaired continence, continence was seen to improve in 88% of patients, likely secondary to removal of the inciting lesion causing poor preoperative anorectal function and symptomology consistent with outlet obstructive defecation due to the mass effect of the lesion prior to excision. In conclusion, short-term functional results are good, with the majority of patients pre­serving their continence.

Long-Term Complications

strictures can be treated with endoscopic dilata­tion or Hegar dilators as outpatients, particularly for low-lying strictures [29].
Rectovaginal Fistula
The distal two thirds of the rectum anteriorly lie in close proximity to the posterior vaginal wall. The identication of the vagina, as well as the rectovaginal septum, is essential when operating on an anterior rectal lesion transanally. Any trauma to these structures can potentially result in a rectovaginal stula. Keller [10] described one case of rectovaginal stula (1.3%) in TAMIS secondary to electrocautery injury. It was man­aged conservatively, as previously described in the section on vaginal entry.
A surgical approach may be required if con­servative management fails. Transanal or trans­vaginal operations are options for local repair. Depending on the location of the defect, consid­eration could be given to transanal repair with endorectal advancement ap, which can be cre­ated using the TAMIS platform [5]. Generally, endorectal advancement aps are effective in about 50% of patients with previously normal sphincter function [29]. At our center, six patients have undergone successful endorectal advance­ment ap repair of rectovaginal stulae via TAMIS.Other local repairs would include endo­vaginal advancement ap, brin glue, mesh inter­position, or sphincteroplasty. Complex cases that fail local repair may require more aggressive options, such as a pedicled muscular ap interpostion, low anterior resection, or, very rarely, abdominoperineal resection.
Rectal Stricture
Rectal strictures have been described in 1–3% of patients after TAMIS [5, 7, 10, 18]. Generally they are managed with serial dilations either via rigid proctoscopy or endoscopy. These were seen after large, circumferential adenomas and recur­rent rectal lesions. Failed endoscopic dilation has been reported, however, and salvage with TAMIS re-excision of the rectal stenosis has been suc­cessfully utilized [18]. Nevertheless, most rectal

References

1. Atallah S, Albert M, Larach S.Transanal minimally
invasive surgery: a giant leap forward. Surg Endosc. 2010;24:2200–5.
2. Atallah SB, Albert MR.Transanal minimally invasive
surgery (TAMIS) versus transanal endoscopic micro­surgery (TEM): is one better than the other? Surg Endosc. 2013;27(12):4750–1.
3. Saget A, Maggiori L, Petrucciani N, Ferron M, Panis
Y. Is there a limit to transanal endoscopic surgery? A comparative study between standard and techni-
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cally challenging indications among 168 consecutive patients. Color Dis. 2015;17(8):737.
4. Quaresima S, Balla A, et al. Transanal Minimally Invasive Surgery for Rectal Lesions. JSLS. 2016;20(3):e2016.00032.
5. Wedman D, Dufresne AM, Melich G, Vikis E. Transanal minimally invasive surgery for benign indications and early anorectal cancers: short-term outcomes in a large case series. In publication.
6. Molina G, Bordeianou L, Shellito P, Sylla P.Transanal endoscopic resection with peritoneal entry: a word of caution. Surg Endosc. 2016;30(5):1816–25.
7. Caycedo-Marulanda A, Jiang H, Kohtakangas E. Transanal minimally invasive surgery for benign large rectal polyps and early malignant rectal can­cers : experience and outcomes from the rst Canadian centre to adopt the technique. Can J Surg. 2017;60(6):416–23.
8. Mege D, Petrucciani N, Maggiori L, Panis Y. Peritoneal perforation is less a complication than an expected event during transanal endoscopic micro­surgery: experience from 194 consecutive cases. Tech Coloproctol. 2017;21:729–36.
9. Dufresne AM, Ramkumar J, Mackenzie S, Melich G, Vikis E.Trans-anal minimally invasive surgery: a new technique to avoid peritoneal entry. Int J Surg Case Rep. 2018;52:11–15.
10. Keller DS, etal. Transanal Minimally invasive surgery: review of indications and outcomes from 75 consecu­tive patients. J Am Coll Surg. 2016;222(5):814–22.
11. Giordano P, Bradley BM, Peiris L.Obliteration of the rectal lumen after stapled hemorrhoidopexy: report of a case. Dis Colon Rectum. 2008;51(10):1574–6.
12. Lee L, etal. Quality of local excision for rectal neo­plasms using transanal endoscopic microsurgery versus transanal minimally invasive surgery: a multi­institutional matched analysis. Dis Colon Rectum. 2017;60(9):928–35.
13. Brown C, Raval MJ, Phang T, Karimuddin A. The surgical defect after transanal endoscopic microsur­gery: open versus closed management. Surg Endosc. 2017;31:1078–82.
14. Menahem B, Alves A, Morello R, Lubrano J.Should the rectal defect be closed following transanal local excision of rectal tumors? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Tech Coloproctol. 2017;21:929–36.
15. Hahnloser D, Cantero R, Salgado G, Dindo D, Rega D, Delrio P. Transanal minimal invasive surgery for rectal lesions: should the defect be closed? Colorectal Dis. 2015;17(5):397–402.
16. Haugvik SP, Groven S, Bondi J, Vagan T, Brynhildsvoll SO, Olsen OC.A critical appraisal of transanal mini­mally invasive surgery (TAMIS) in the treatment of rectal adenoma: a 4-year experience with 51 cases. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2016;51(7):855–9.
17. Rosen L, Sipe P, Stasik JJ, Riether RD, Trimpi HD. Outcome of delayed hemorrhage following
surgical hemorrhoidectomy. Dis Colon Rectum. 1993;36:743–6.
18. McLemore EC, Weston LA, Coker AM, etal. Transanal minimally invasive surgery for benign and malignant rectal neoplasia. Am J Surg. 2014;208:372–81.
19. ClinicalTrials.gov [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US). 2000 Feb 29­. Identier NCT03314025, Prophylactic tamsulosin in prevention of post-operative urinary retention in men after transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEMPOUR); 2017 Oct 6 [cited 2018 Jun 29]; [about 4 screens]. Available from: https://clinicaltri-
als.gov/ct2/show/NCT03314025?term=tempour&r ank=1.
20. Simkens GA, Nienhuijs SW, Luyer MD, de Hingh IH.Massive surgical emphysema following transanal endoscopic microsurgery. World J Gastroint Surg. 2014;6(8):160–3.
21. Kerr K, Mills GH.Intra-operative and post- operative hypercapnia leading to delayed respiratory fail­ure associated with transanal endoscopic micro­surgery under general anaesthesia. Br J Anesth. 2001;86(4):586–9.
22. Chandra A, Clarke R, Shawkat H. Intraoperative hypercarbia and massive surgical emphysema second­ary to transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEMS). BMJ Case Rep. 2014;2014
23. Xia W, Manning JPR, Barazanchi AWH, Su’a B, Hill AG. Metronidazole following excisional haemor­rhoidectomy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. ANZ J Surg. 2018;88(5):408–14.
24. Solorio-Lopez S, etal. Efcacy of metronidazole ver­sus placebo in pain control after hemorrhoidectomy. Results of a controlled clinical trial. Rev Esp Enferm Dig. 2015;107(11):681–5.
25. Mora Lopez L, Serra Aracil X, Hermoso Bosch J, Rebasa P, Navarro Soto S. Study of anorectal func­tion after transanal endoscopic surgery. Int J Surg. 2015;13:142–7.
26. Mendes S, Ramon C. Transanal minimally-invasive surgery (TAMIS): technique and results from an initial experience. J Coloproctol (Rio de Janeiro). 2013;33(4)
27. Schiphorst AH, Langenhoff BS, Maring J, Pronk A, Zimmerman DD. Transanal minimally invasive surgery: initial experience and short-term functional results. Dis Colon Rectum. 2014;57(8):927–32.
28. Clermonts SHEM, Van Loon YT, Schiphorst AHW, Wasowicz DK, Zimmerman DDE. Transanal minimally invasive surgery for rectal polyps and selected malignant tumors: caution concerning intermediate-term functional results. Int J Color Dis. 2017;32(12):1677–85.
29. Gordon P, Santhat N. Principles and practice of surgery for the colon, rectum and anus: Informa Healthcare Inc; 2007. p.1165–87.
Functional Outcomes After Local Excision forRectal Neoplasia
ElizabethR.Raskin
13

Introduction

The transanal approach can be a viable surgical option for most benign and select malignant rec­tal neoplasms. The decision to proceed with transanal surgery is typically based upon the size of a lesion, its location within the anorectal canal, and its particular pathologic characteristics. Advances in technology, such as the advent of transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM) and transanal minimally invasive surgery (TAMIS), have allowed for improved optics and access within the anorectum, translating into superior surgical margins and enhanced oncologic out­comes [1, 2]. While a large focus has been placed on the safety, feasibility, and oncologic soundness of transanal techniques compared to traditional proctectomy, functional outcomes following transanal surgery have received much less attention.
Postoperative anorectal functional outcomes can be summarized as gas and stool continence, fecal frequency/urgency, and quality of life fol­lowing surgery. Multiple factors play a role in postoperative function, such as preoperative baseline function, tumor characteristics, surgical technique, and the extent of resection.
E. R. Raskin (*) Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA
VA Hospital Loma Linda, Department of Surgery, Loma Linda, CA, USA
Preoperative measurement, both with qualitative and quantitative tools, is critical to establishing a baseline from which to assess the effect of trans­anal surgery on function. This chapter aims to dene anorectal function, elucidate preoperative and intraoperative factors that contribute to func­tional outcomes, and compare postoperative out­comes after traditional transanal (TA) surgery, transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM), and transanal minimally invasive surgery (TAMIS).

Anorectal Function

Normal anorectal continence involves complex contributions from the pelvic and perineal mus­culature, rectal compliance and capacity, as well as neuronal pathways which potentiate various reexes.
Anatomy ofAnorectal Continence
The pelvic oor– or levator ani, perineal body, and the internal and external anal sphincter mus­cles– comprises the muscular framework for the continence mechanism. Parasympathetic inner­vation of the pelvic oor arises from S4, while S1–S3 and S2–S4 innervate the internal and external sphincter, respectively. These branches of the pelvic plexus help coordinate activity of both the striated and smooth muscle of the pelvis
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 S. Atallah (ed.), Transanal Minimally Invasive Surgery (TAMIS) and Transanal Total Mesorectal Excision (taTME), https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11572-2_13
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and perineum, although it is unclear in the exact manner they behave. Unquestionably, excitatory activity is elicited from sympathetic innervation from the hypogastric and pelvic plexus.
Anal canal sensation originates from the inferior rectal branch of the pudendal nerve, which arises from S2 to S4, and helps to dis­criminate between gas and liquid/solid stool. In contrast, the rectum senses only distention; it also receives innervation from S2 to S4. The perception of atus is attributed to receptors in the walls of the rectum and the fascia of the pel­vis. Surgical trauma to either the mucosa of the anal canal or the wall of the rectum can distort the ability to differentiate stool consis­tency and lead to incontinence and/or urgency. In addition, postoperative inflammation can lead to hyper-acute sensation, precipitating poor accommodation and subsequent fecal frequency.
Compliance andCapacity
Rectal compliance and capacity refer to the dis­tensibility of the walls and the volume of the rec­tal reservoir, which directly impact continence. Compliance can be altered in the early postopera­tive period by inammation and edema and, in the later postoperative phase, by brosis. Similarly, prior radiotherapy can negatively impact the reservoir function, resulting in fecal urgency, frequency, and stool fragmentation.
Anorectal Reexes
The rectoanal inhibitory reex (RAIR) describes the relaxation of the IAS upon distention of the rectum, and it allows for the sampling process within the anal canal. This enables stool and/or gas to make contact with receptors within the walls of the anal canal to signal the nature of the substance above in the rectal vault. While this reex can be lost following low anterior resection, it typically remains intact following transanal surgery, as it is contingent upon intrinsic innervation.
The rectoanal excitatory reflex (RAER) denotes the contraction of the EAS upon rectal distention, which manifests as an anorectal squeeze. Unlike the RAIR, this reflex is deter­mined by S2–S4 innervation and can be dis­rupted by injury to the pudendal nerve endings. Continence can be disrupted if the RAER is either blunted or abolished secondary to pudendal nerve block or surgical trauma. Specifically, the external anal sphincter is largely responsible for maintaining continence with increases in intraabdominal pressure, such as during coughing, sneezing, or heavy lifting [3].
Measuring Anorectal Function
Functional assessment tools such as the Fecal Incontinence Severity Index (FISI) and the Fecal Incontinence Quality of Life (FIQL) scale have been utilized to quantify the magnitude of incon­tinence and the impact it has on patients’ lives [4, 5].
The FISI, a severity rating score for fecal incontinence (FI), assesses the types of leakage experienced by those with FI (gas, mucus, liquid, or solid) and the frequency of the occurrences of incontinence [4]. This validated score has been shown to be a useful measure of anorectal func­tion, with good concordance between patient and surgeon assessment of the condition.
On the other hand, the FIQL scale is a tool for specically measuring the impact of FI on the quality of life (QOL) [5]. There are 29 items addressed in 4 general categories: (1) life­style, (2) coping/behavior, (3) depression/self­perception, and (4) embarrassment. Given the reliability of this score, it has become a standard instrument in subsequent studies for qualifying QOL after interventions [6, 7].
Multiple other incontinence scores exist, such as the Pescatori score, the Wexner Continence Scale, and the American Medical Systems score. These grading systems evaluate the type of incon­tinence experienced, the frequency, severity, and impact of incontinence on lifestyle [8].
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Preoperative Evaluation

A thorough preoperative evaluation should be performed to understand a patient’s baseline function and to anticipate the potential risks for postoperative anorectal disturbance. Direct ques­tions regarding continence are warranted to understand preoperative status. If FI is described, validated questionnaires, as described above, can be helpful for accurate assessment and documen­tation. In addition to prior anorectal and/or pelvic surgery, a history of pelvic malignancy, obstetri­cal injury, or pelvic radiation therapy should be elicited.
Physical Exam
Visual inspection of the anal and perineal areas can reveal scarring from prior treatment, trauma, or sur­gery. In women, the width of the perineum should be noted, as a thin perineal body may be associated with prior injury and a weakened sphincter mecha­nism. Anal canal resting tone and squeeze, as well as moderate to large sphincter defects, can be sub­jectively assessed on digital exam. Intact sensation
of the perianal skin and anus can be tested with a cotton swab or electrical stimulation.
Imaging andFunctional Assessment Technology
Endoanal ultrasonography and magnetic reso­nance imaging (MRI) can provide anatomic detail such as sphincter width and integrity. These modalities are useful for classication of sphinc­ter defects, noting level, depth, and size within the anal canal [9]. Interestingly, there is no direct correlation between the presence of a sphincter injury and incontinence. In a study of 1495 women with prior third- or fourth-degree obstet­rical tears who underwent endoanal ultrasonogra­phy, no signicant difference was noted in continence scores between those with residual sphincter defects and those with normal sphinc­ters [10] (Fig.13.1).
Anorectal manometry and rectal barostat mea­surements can give more objective functional data in the form of anal resting pressure, anal squeeze pressure, rectal wall compliance, and rectal perception [11] (Figs.13.2 and 13.3).
Fig. 13.1 Endoanal ultrasound demonstrating anterior internal and external sphincter injury. (Photo credit: Dr. Yan Zhao)