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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5579_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
Biosynthesis of Sennosides
Section 2 Pharmacognosy
289
Biosynthesis of Sarsasapogenin
Section 2 Pharmacognosy
290
Biosynthesis of Diosgenin
Section 2 Pharmacognosy
291
IMPORTANT DRUG CONTAINING CARBOHYDRATE, RESIN AND TANNIN WITH THEIR BIOLOGICAL SOURCE,
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS, USES AND CHARACTERISTICS
DRUG CONTAINING CARBOHYDRATE
Name/Synonym Biological source Chemical composition Use Characteristics
Acacia gum (gum
Arabic, Indian gum,
Kher, Somali gum,
yellow thorn)
Guar gum (Jagur
gum, gum flour,
decorpa)
Honey (Madhu,
Madh, Mel)
Section 2 Pharmacognosy
292
It is dried gummy
exudation obtained
from stem and
branches of Acacia
Senegal (Leguminosae)
It is produced from
the powdered
endosperm of the
seed of Cyamopsis
Tetragonolobus Linn.
(Leguminosae)
It is a viscid and sweet
secretion stored in the
honeycomb by various
species of bees such
as Apis Mellifera,
(Apideae)
Arabin – complex
mixture of Ca, Mg and K
salts of arabic acid. On
hydrolysis it is converted
into L-arabinose,
D-galactose,
L-rhamanose and
D-glucronic acid
Water soluble part of
guar gum contains
high molecular weight
hydro- colloidal
polysaccharide like
Galactomannan is also
known as Guaran (linear
chain of (1→4)-β-Dmannopyranosyl
unit with α-Dgalactopyrasonyl unit)
Dextrose (23–36%)
Levulose/ fructose (30–
47%) sucrose (0.4–6%),
dextrin and gum 0–7%
and in small amount
of formic acid, acetic
acid, succinic acid,
maltose and enzyme like
diastase, invertase and
inulase
Demulcent, binding
agent, pharmaceutical
aids for emulsification
Disintegrating
agent, emulsifying
agent, bulk laxative,
appetite depressants,
decrease serum LDL
level
Mild laxative,
sedative, used in
ulcer; honey and
onion juice is used
in arteriosclerosis in
brain
Allied drugs, talka
gum, Ghatti gum
Confirmatory test:
Fiehe’s test for
artificial Invert
test; adultrants:
Canesugar, artificial
invert sugar
(Contd.)
Name/Synonym Biological source Chemical composition Use Characteristics
Tragacanth (goat’s
thorn, gum dragon,
Hog gum)
Karaya gum (Indian
tragacanth, Sterculia
gum, Bassora
tragacanth, Kadaya,
Mucara, Kadira
Katila and Kullo
Agar (Japanese
isinglass, vegetable
gelatin)
Xanthan gum It is a microbial
Isapghula (spongel
seeds) Indian
psyllium isabgol
Carrageenan
(Chondrus extract,
rish moss extract)
It is air-dried gummy
exudates, flowering
naturally or obtained
by incision, from the
stems and branches of
Astragalus Gummifer
(Leguminosae)
It is gummy exudates
obtained by incision,
from Sterculia Urens
(Sterculiaceae)
It is dried gelatinous
substance obtained by
extraction with water
from Gelidium amansii
(Gracilariaceae)
polysaccharide
obtained from
xanthomonus
compestris
It consists of dried
seeds of Plantago
ovate (Plantaginaceae)
It is sulphated
polysaccharide
obtained from the
seaweed called Irish
moss, the red algae
Chondrus crispus Linn,
(Gigartinaceae)
Tragacanthin :Water
soluble fraction
(30–40%) and
Bassorin:Water insoluble
fraction (60–70%),
other three constitutes
are tragacanthic acid
on hydrolysis gives
galactose, xylose and
galactouronic acid and
natural polysaccharide
and steroidal glycoside
Chemically, it
is acetylated
polysaccharides,
contain 8% acetyl
group and 37% uronic
acid. It undergoes
hydrolysis under acidic
medium in D-galactose,
L-rhamanose,
D-galactouronic acid
and trisaccharide uronic
substance
It is a complex
heterosaccharide and
contains agarose and
agaropectine. Agarose
is natural galactose,
polymer and responsible
for the gel property agar
made-up of D-galactose
and L-galactose
Agaro-pectine is madeup of sulphonated
polysaccharides
D-glucosyl. D-mannosyl
and D-glucosyluronic
acid
It contains 10% mucilage
consists of two complex
polysaccharides,
pentosan is soluble
in cold water and
hydrolyzed to xylose,
arabinose and
aldobionic acid yields
galactouronic acid and
rhamanose
Major constitute is
galactans also known
as carrageenan.
kappa, Iota and lamda
carrageenan are types
of carrageenan
Demulcent in cough
and cold preparation,
emollient in
cosmetic, thickening,
suspending and
emulsifying agent
Bulk laxative,
adsorbents dental
adhesive
Nutrients media for
bacterial culture,
chronic constipation,
laxative, emulsifying
agent, gelating agent
Stabilizer and
suspending agent
in emulsion, paints,
agriculture and
herbicidal spray
Demulcent, bulk
laxative Microscopy:
Emulsifying agent,
stabilizing agent,
solublizing agent,
viscosity builder in
food products. It is
a popular phlogistic
agent for inducing
inflammation in the rat
paw oedema model
for the study of antiinflammatory activity.
Hog tragacanth,
citral gum used as
adulterants
Adultrants: Gum
tragacanth
Adulterants are
gelatin and danish
aga
Recombinant DNA
technology used
for commercial
production of
xanthan gum
1. Pigment layer
yellow in colour,
2. Embryo contains
3–5 vascular
bundles.
Chemical Test:
Swelling factor
Substitute or
adulterant: Gigartina
stellata Batt.
Section 2 Pharmacognosy
293
Contd...
DRUG CONTAINING RESIN
Name/Synonym Biological source Chemical composition Use Characteristics
Asafoetida (Devil’s
dung, God’s food,
Asant, Hing, asafoda)
Oleo gum resin
obtained as an
exudation by incision
of the decapitated
rhizome and roots of
Ferula asafoetida
(Apiceae)
Volatile oil (4–20%),
resin (40–65%) and
gum (25%)
Isobutyl propenyl
disulphide
(responsible for
garlic-like odour).
Resin consists
Carminative,
expectorant, antispasmodic
of ester of
asaresinotannol and
ferulic acid, pinene,
vanillin
It also contains
phellendrene,
geranyl acetate,
camphene,
limonene, eugenol,
myrecene,
camphene
Balsam of Peru
(Peruvian balsam,
Indian balsam, China
oil, Black balsam,
Honduras balsam,
Surnam balsam)
It is obtained by
incision of the stem of
Myroxylon balsamum
var. pereirae
(Papilionaceae)
Balsamic ester (benzyl
cinnamate-cinnamein),
benzyl benzoate and
cinnamy lcinnamate
(styracin), alcohol
like farnesol, benzyl
Miticide, scabicide,
parasiticide, rubificient
flavouring agent
alcohol and small
amount of vanillin and
free cinnamic acid
Balsam of Tolu
Thomas balsam,
opobalsam, resintolu
It is obtained by
incision of the
stem of Myroxylon
balsamum (L.) Harms
(Papilionaceae)
It contains 80% resins
which is a mixture of
resin alcohol combined
with cinnamic acid and
benzoic acid. 30–35%
total balsamic acid.
Other aromatic acid,
Expectorant,
stimulant, antiseptic.
It is an ingredient of
cough mixture and
compound benzoin
tincture flavouring
agent
benzyl benzoate,
banzyl cinnamate,
vanillin, styrene,
eugenol
Cannabis Indian
hemp, hashish,
Bhang, Ganja,
Charas, Marijuana
Dried flowering plant
of Cannabis sativa
Linn, (Canabinaceae)
(Moraceae)
The major
psychoactive
chemical compound
in cannabis is Δ9-
tetrahydrocannabinol
(commonly abbreviated
Tonic, sedative,
analgesic, intoxicants,
stomachic,
antispasmodic,
anti-convulsant, anti-
tussive, narcotic.
as THC). Canabidiol,
canabidolicacid,
cannabinol,
cannabichromene
Capsicum (Cayenne
pepper, red pepper,
Spanish pepper,
mirch)
Dried and ripe fruits of
Capsicum minimum
and Capsicum annum
(Solanaceae)
Oleoresin, caratenoids,
capsacutin, capsico
(a volatile alkaloids),
thiamine, ascorbic acid.
Pungency of capsicum
Stimulant, counter
irritant, rubificients,
scarlatina,
carminative,
stomachic
is due to capsaicin and
capsanthin is a main
Section 2 Pharmacognosy
caratenoids of the red
fruits
294
Adultrants:
Gumarabica rosin,
gypsum, redclay,
chalk, wheat flour
Adulterant:
Colophony
Allied drugs:
Japanese chillies,
Bombay capsicums
Contd...
Name/Synonym Biological source Chemical composition Use Characteristics
Colophony (rosin,
abiatic anhydride,
yellow resin)
Ginger (rhizome
zingiberis, zingibere)
sunthi
Guggal (gumgugul,
salai-gogil)
Myrrh (Myrrha,
Arabian or Somali
myrrh)
Podophyllum (May
apple root, American
Mandrake)
Siam benzoin It is balsamic resin
Sumatra benzoin gum
Benjamin, Benzonium,
luban
Turmeric (saffron
Indian, Haldi,
Curcuma)
It is solid residue
obtained after
distillation off the
volatile oil from
oleoresin obtained
from Pinus palustris
(Pinaceae)
Dried rhizomes
of Zingiber
officinale Roscoe,
(Zingiberaceae)
It is a gum resin
obtained by incision
of the bark of
Commiphora mukul
(Burseraceae)
It is oleo gum resin
obtained from the
stem of Commiphora
molmol (Burseraceae)
Dried roots and
rhizomes of
Podophyllum peltatum
Linn (Berberidaceae)
derived from stem of
Styrax tonkinensis
Craib (Styraceae)
It is obtained from
incised stem of Styrax
benzoin (Styraceae)
Dried rhizome of
Curcurma longa Linn
(Zingiberaceae)
It contains resin acid
(90%), resins 90%
isomeric α, β, γ-abietic
acid and other 10%
dihydroabietic acid
and dihydroabietic acid
pimeric acid
1–4% volatile oil
responsible for aromatic
order (sesquiterpene
hydrocarbon
like α-zingiberol,
α-farnesene), 5–8%
pungent resinous
mass due to gingerol.
Gingerone and shogal
are less pungent
Gum (32%), sterols
(guggulsterone I
to VI, β-sitosterol,
cholesterol, Z and
E-guggulsterone),
Ellagic acid, sugar and
amino acid
Resin: 25–40% like
α, β, γ-commiphoric
acid volatile oil like
cumin aldehyde,
eugenol, cresol,
pinene, limonene, gum
containing protein and
carbohydrate
Resin: Podophyllin,
Podophyllotoxin, α and
β-peltatin, flavanoids
like quercetin
It contains coniferyl
benzoate, benzoic acid,
triterpene siaresinolic
acid, vanillin
Free balsamic acid
(benzoic acid +
cinnamic acid) and
triterpenic acid like
siaresinolic acid and
sumaresinolic acid
Curcuminoids
(5%), colouring
matter (Curcumin I
60% in addition to
Curcumin II and III,
dihydrocurcumin.
Volatile oil—
zingeberene,
α-phellandrene,
borneol, cineol
Stiffening agent in
ointment, adhesive,
plaster and cerates
Abietic acid having
antimicrobial, antiulcer
and cardiovascular
activit
Antiemetic,
positive ionotropic,
spasmolytic, aromatic
stimulant, carminative
Lower serum
triglycerides and
cholesterol as well
as LDL and VLDL
and raise HDL level,
platelet aggregation
inhibitor, gum is
astringent and
antirheumatics
Carminative, used
in tooth powder and
mouthwash
Cytotoxic activity,
gastrict irritant
Expectorant and
antioxidants
Expectorant,
Carminative and
diuretics
Anti-inflammatory,
stomachic,
carminative,
blood purifiers, in
Rheunatoid arthritis
It is collected by cup
and gutter method
Adulterants: Wormy
drug or spent ginger
Allied drugs: Four
different varieties of
bdellium are present
Podophyllum is
converted into
etoposide which is
mainly used for lung
and testicular cancer;
strong gastro in
testinal irritant
Allied drugs:
Palembang benzoin
Adulterant:
Acoruscalamu
Section 2 Pharmacognosy
295
TANNIN
Hydrolysable Tannin
Name/Synonym Biological source Chemical composition Use Characteristics
Myrobalan (Chebulic
myrobalam, Harde,
Haritaki
Bahera (Baleric
myrobalam, Baheda,
Bibhitak
Arjuna (Arjun bark,
Arjun)
Amla (Emblica,
Indian gooseberry)
Dried fruits of
Terminalia chebula,
(Combretaceae)
Dried ripe fruits of
Terminalia belerica
Linn (Combretaceae)
Dried stem bark of
Terminalia arjuna rob
(Combretaceae)
Dried as well as
fresh fruits of
Embilica officinalis
(Phyllanthus
Emblica Linn)
(Euphorbiaceae)
Chebulic acid,
chebulinic acid,
D-galloyl glucose, free
tannic acid, ellagic acid
and gallic acid
Ellagic acid, gallic acid,
phyllemblin, D-galloyl
glucose and ethyl
gallate
Tannins are (+)
catechol, gallocatechol,
epicatechol,
epigallocatechol and
gallic acid flavanoids
are Arjunolone,
Arjunone and Baicalein
Tri-terpenoids are
Arjunetin, Arjungenin,
Arjunglucoside I and II
and terminoic acid
Vitamin C (ascorbic
acid), minerals and
amino acids. Alkaloids
are phyllantine and
phyllantidine
Purgative, dental
preparation
Astringent in treatment
of dyspepsia and
diarrhoea
Diuretic due to triterpenoids present in
bark, astringent— It
causes decrease in
blood pressure and
heart rate
Diuretics, cooling,
laxative. In diabetes
dysentery it has
also Antioxidants,
anti-bacterial, anti
fungal and antiviral
properties
It is a constitute of
Triphala
It is a constitute
of Triphala. Stone
cells and rosettes
of Calcium oxalate
crystals are present in
parenchymatous cells
Adulterants:
Terminalia tomentosa
Chemical test: By
fluorescence, etheral
extract of Arjuna gives
pink colour while
Terminalia tomentosa
gives pale blue colour
It is a key ingredient
in Triphala Churna,
Chyavanprash and
Jeevan malt
Condensed Tannins or Non-hydrolysable Tannins
Name/Synonym Biological source Chemical composition Use Characteristics
Ashoka
(Ashoka bark)
Section 2 Pharmacognosy
296
Dried stem bark
of the plant
Saraca indica Linn
Leguminosae
Ashoka stem bark
contains about
6% of tannins and
anthocyanin derivatives
which includes
leucopelargonidin3-O-β-D-glucocide.
Leucopelargonidin
and leucoanidin.
It also contains
waxy substance
constituted of long
chain alkanes,esters,
alcohols and
n-octacosanol.
The steroidal
components present
in the bark includes
24-methylcholest5-en-3-β-ol, (ZZE)24-enthylcholest-5,
22-dien-3-β-ol,
24-ethylcholest-5-en-3β-ol and β-sitosterol.
Uterine tonic, sedative
Oxytoci
Adulterants:
Polyalthialongifolia
Microscopy: It
contains prismatic
crystals of calcium
oxalate
Contd...
Name/Synonym Biological source Chemical composition Use Characteristics
Pale catechu
(Gambier, Catechu)
Dried aqueous
extracts produced
from the leaves
and young
twigs of Uncaria
Gambier Roxburgh
(Rubiaceae)
7–30% pseudo tannin
catechin and 22–55%
pholbatannin catechunic
acid. It also contains
catechu red, Gambier
fluorescin and quercetin.
Indole alkaloids like
Local astringents
Dyeing and tanning
industries
It gives positive test
with match stick test,
vanilline HCl acid
test and Gambier
fluorescin test
gambirtannin
Black catechu (Cutch,
Kattha)
Dried aqueous
extracts produced
from the heartwoods
of Acacia catechu
(Leguminosae)
Same as pale catechu Astringents,
appetizers, cure
troubles of mouth,
throat and diarrhoea
dyeing and tanning
Microscopy: It
contains prismatic
crystals of calcium
oxalate
17. Herbarium
Aherbarium is a pressed collection or depository of
dried plant specimens. The herbarium clearly displays
thecharacteristicpartsofeachplantandislabeledwith
scienticandcommonnames.
Anaccompanyingdescriptionofthespeciesform,habitat
andlocation allow forcomparison of the herbarium
specimenwithplantsfoundintheeld.Aherbariumis
aninvaluablereferencefornewvolunteersandgroup
memberstoidentifyspeciestheynd.
Properidenticationensuresthatonlythetargetweeds
areremoved. Creating a herbarium can also give the
groupagreaterunderstandingandappreciationofthe
oraldiversitythatexistsinyourpatch.
Well-pressedherbariumscreateanimportantscientic
recordfororaatyourpatch.
Herbariumspecimensarecarefullydocumented,wellpreservedplant specimens. They consist ofwell-laid
out, dried plant material that is attached, together with
alabel,toasheetofpaper.
ESSENTIAL TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
1. Digger(trowelorpick):In theeld,diggerisneeded
fordiggingroots.
2. Secateur: It isrequired for cutting twigsof trees and
shrubsforherbariumspecimens.
3.Vasculum: It is a containermade-up of tin or
aluminiumsheet.It is some whatoval on end and
usually45–60cmlong.Thecollectedspecimensare
carriedin a box called vasculum to avoidloss of
moistureanddistortionsbydryingandshrivelling
up.
4. Coveringbags/packets:Somematerialrequiresspecial
preservation.Conesareplacedwiththeirlabel,inplastic
bags. Bryophytes are dried and stored in paper packets.
Fungiarestored,afterbeingcompletelydried,inplastic
bagsandboxes.Fleshyfruitsmaybestored,withtheir
label, in alcohol or other preservatives. But for most
plants,andmostpurposes,thecombinationofpressing,
drying,andgluingtopaperworksjustne.Although
simplethetechniqueiseffective:Specimensmadeover
500 years ago are still being studied.
5. Fieldnotebook:Taxonomystudentscarryaeldnote:
bookforrecordingeverydetailratherthandepending
upon the memory. These notes not only will help the
identicationofthespecimens,butalsocanbecompared
and added to the current botanical knowledge. The
herbariumcould encourage thecollection of many
written data which can actually increase the botanical
knowledgeof certain geographical areas. Thisis a
listof what you could record to add many valuable
informationtoyourherbarium:
z
Name of locality and exact location, be precise, if
possible include the longitude and latitude.
z
Local name of plant, if any.
z
Habitat and ecology—vegetation type, associations
with other plants.
z
Plant habit—describes the overall size and shape of
the plant (tree, bush, epiphyte, etc.).
z
Stems and trunks—height and diameter; colour,
texture, thickness and hardness; the presence of thorns
and spines.
z
leaves—deciduous or evergreen; colour, texture and
overall aspect; orientation; exudate or glands.
z
Inflorescence and flowers—note of everything that
could be undetected in prepared specimens; colour;
heterostylous, monoecious or dioecious; different
behaviour (open/closed).
z
Fruits and seeds—size, shape, colour, texture; smell.
z
Underground organs—take some samples or describe
them (size and shape, type of root, tubers, bulb, etc.).
z
Scent—record any particular scent, especially of cut
parts and flowers.
z
Sap or latex—note the colour, smell, consistency, etc.
z
Name—record the locally used name(s).
Section 2 Pharmacognosy
297
z
Date of collection.
z
Soil characteristics.
z
Uses—record the uses, getting confirmation.
z
Botanical name (if known).
z
Field number of specimen.
6.Portableplantpress:Thisisanequipmentbymeansof
whichfreshspecimensarepressedat,without folds
and become quickly dried. The collected specimens
shouldbe put into a strong bag made of cloth or
polytheneorsimilarmaterial(plastic,etc.),thefunction
ofthesecontainersbeingtoprotectplantsfromdamage
during your outing.
TAKING PICTURES
Takingcolour pictures of each plant in itsnatural
environmentisalsosomethingwhichcouldsubstantially
enrich the qualityof your herbarium, not only
aesthetically,butalsofromthescienticpointofview.
In that way, the dried specimen can be placed together
withoneormorephotographs,whichareveryhelpful
forbulkyplantsliketreesorbushes,whichobviouslycan
not be entirely included in a herbarium! Also the habitat
ofa plant can be well-describedwith a photograph,
takingcarenottobetoodistantfromthenearbybushes
or trees.
B.Dryingofspecimens:Fordrying,thepresscontaining
specimensisplacedinthesun.Thepressisopenedafter
24 hours, the specimens are rearranged, placed between
thefreshblottersandthenagaintightlyboundinthe
press.Thewetblottersremovedshouldbedriedusually
by placing them in the sun.
MOUNTING OF SPECIMEN
Therearedifferentwaystomountthespecimensto the
herbarium sheets:
Strapping:Thismethodwillletyoutoremoveandexamine
thespecimeneverytimeisneeded,butwillallowacertain
degreeofmovementwhichcancausesometrouble.The
specimens can be strapped with linen or cotton thread that
willbeknottedonthereversesideofthesheet,whereitis
bettertoaddsomegummedpapertoavoidcontactwith
underlying specimens.
Gluing: Glue is chosen to mount the specimens, should be
water-basedwood-workingadhesiveorlibrarypastesor
latexadhesive,whichmustbeappliedquickly,takingcare
ofnotusinganexcessiveamount.Gluedmaterialshould
thenbeleftunderpressureovernight,coveringeachsheet
with waxed paper and with drying paper. With aquatic
plantsonlylatexglueistherightsolutionforgluingthe
specimens,astheseplantscantakeupwaterfromtheglue.
COLLECTION OF PLANT SPECIMENS
Thefollowingthingshouldbekeptinmindwhilecollecting
plantspecimensformakingherbarium:
1. The plant specimen should beeither in owering or
fruitingcondition,preferablyboth.
2. Herbaceous plants should be collected with underground
partsasfaraspossible.
3. Incaseofwoodyplantatwigofabout25cmwillforma
goodspecimen.Ithelpsincomprehensionofphyllotaxy
andinorescenceofplant.
4. Itisalwaysgoodtocollectatleast four specimens of
each plant.
MAKING HERBARIUM SPECIMENS
A.Pressingofspecimens:
1. Thespecimenshouldbecarefullydisplayedonthe
pressing sheet (blotters or new print sheet).
2. Thelargerspecimenswhichcannotteasilyonthe
sheet should be bent into V, N or W shape.
3. In case ofaquatic plants on the sheetwhen they
areremoved from water, theyshould be takenon
unprintednewssheetoatedonthewaterandsuch
sheet with specimen should be placed in the pressing
sheet.
Pins:Someherbariahavetheirspecimensmountedusing
smallpaperbandswhichxtheplanttothesheetwith
thehelp ofpins.Thestripisplacedonthestemandthe
pin joins together the mounting sheet, the stem and the
strip,passing below the specimen.For the preservation
ofherbariumsheetforlongperiodafterthemountingof
plant, it is treated with CuSO
or mercuric chloride.
4
LABELLING OF SPECIMENS
After mounting thespecimen, a label is glued on the
lowerrighthandcornerofthesheet.Thelabelprovides
informationtakenfromtheeldnotebook.Thelabelshould
includeatleastthefollowingdata:
1. Alabelheadingindicatingthenameofinstitutionwith
whichspecimenoriginatedandtheregionofcollection.
2. Thenameoffamily
3. Thebotanicalnameoftheplantwithauthority
4. Thelocalityofcollection
5. Thedateofcollection
6. The habitat
7. Theeldnotes
8. Thenameofthecollector
9. Thecollectoreldnumber
10.Thevernacularnameandlocaluses,ifany.
Section 2 Pharmacognosy
298