Книга_5579_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана

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dropsof20%NaOHvioletcolourappearswhichturn blueaftersometime.

 Note:Thiscolourisduetotheactivationofmethylene

groupofC-21inthelactoneringofcardiacglycosides.

b. Modified Raymand’stest or kiddes reagent test:

Glycosidestreated with Kidde’s reagent gives blue violetcolour.Thiscolourdisappearsaftersometime

c. Kidde’sreagent:Mixequalquantityof0.2%solutionof

3,5dinitrobenzoicacidin50%methanoland5.7%w/v ofaqsolutionofKOH.

d.KillarKillanitest:Inthistest1gmofpowdereddrugis

extractedwith10mlof70%alcoholthenltered.5ml ofltrateismixedwith10mlofH2O2andadd0.5mlof strongleadacetateduetowhichprecipitateformedand thenltered.ShakeFilteratewith5mlofCHCl3 with 1mlof1volumeof5%FeSO4and99volumeofglacial aceticacidandthen1–2dropofconcentratedH2SO4 is

added due to which blue colour appears. Note: Blue

colourisformedduetodeoxysugars.

Anthracene glycosides or anthraquinone glycosides

Theyare found abundantly in dicotplant families: Ericaceae,Euphorbiaceae,Leguminoseae,andRubiaceae.

These glycosides contain an aglycone group that is a

derivativeofanthraquinone.

For anthraquinone glycosides

a. Borntrager test: Powder drug is treated with dil H2SO

andboiledfor5–10minutesandltered.Theltrateis shakedwithorganicsolvent(Benzene/chloroform).The

organic layer is separated and treated with ammonia solution. The ammonicallayer appears pink.

b. Modied anthraquinone test:Powderdrugistreated

withdilHCland 5 ml of 5% FeCl3 cooled and shake withorganicsolventthe organiclayeristreatedwith

ammonia pink red colour is obtained.

 Note:AdditionofFeCl3isduetobreakofC–Clinkage

ofglycosideswhichisstrongerthanC=Olinkage.

Saponin Glycosides

Steroidal saponins widely distributed in nature. They

possesessomecommoncharacterestics:A)Theyproducefoaminaqueoussolution B)TheycausehemolysisofRBC.

Aglyconeof the saponin glycosides areknown as sapogenins.They are foundin many monocotyledon families,especially the Dioscoreaceae(e.g. Dioscorea) andthe Liliaceae (e.g. Smilax, Trillium). e.g. dioscin

(Dioscorea). Acidhydrolysis of dioscin liberates the aglycone diosgenin.

Biosynthesis: Formed through mevalonate and

deoxyxylulose pathway

Test for saponin:About 2 g of the powdered sample

wasboiledin20mlofdistilledwaterinawaterbathand ltered.10mloftheltratewasmixedwith5mlofdistilled waterandshakenvigorouslyforastablepersistentfroth. Thefrothing was mixed with 3 drops of oliveoil and shakenvigorously, then observed for theformation of

emulsion.

Cyanogenetic Glycosides

Cyanogenicglycosidesareagroupofmainlyplant-derived

materials, which liberate hydrocyanic acid (HCN) on

hydrolysis,andarethusofconcernas naturaltoxicants. Thegroupisidentiedbyamygdalin. a constituent in the kernelsofbitteralmonds(Prunus amygdalus ; Rosaceae) and

other Prunus species such as apricots, peaches, cherries, and plums. When plant tissue containing a cyanogenic glycoside is crushed, glycosidase enzymes, usually located

indifferentcellsarebroughtintocontactwiththeglycoside

and begin to hydrolyse it. Thus, amygdalin is hydrolysed sequentially by β-glucosidase-typeenzymestoprunasin and then mandelonitrile. Cyanogenetic glycoside contains nitrogen, but the sugar moiety is attached to oxygen. The

enzymeemulsinfoundinalmond,consistsoftwoenzymes

amygdalase and prunase.

Themain amino acids utilized in the biosynthesisof

cyanogenic glycosides are phenylalanine (e.g. prunasin, sambunigrin, and amygdalin), tyrosine (e.g. dhurrin from sorghum (Sorghum bicolour; Graminae/Poaceae)), valine

(e.g.linamarinfromax(Linum usitatissimum;Linaceae)), isoleucine(e.g.fromax),andleucine(e.g.heterodendrin fromAcacia species(Leguminosae/Fabaceae)

Chemical test: Sodium picrate test

Astripoflterpaperisdippedin10%aqueoussolution ofpicricacid.Itisdrainedandredippedin10%sodium

carbonate solution and drained again. To powdered drug

inaask,waterisaddedtomoistenit.Sodiumpicrateis keptonthemouthoftheask.Hydrocyanicacidvapours

turn the paper brick red or maroon coloured.

Biosynthesis: Through shikimic acid and phenylalanine

pathway.

Flavanoid Glycosides

Flavanoidglycosidesaremostlyoccurringaso-glycosides orc-glycosidescontaininginthecellsapofhigherplants belongingtothefamilieslikeCompositeae,Leguminoseae, RutaceaeandUmbelliferae.

Differenttypesofavanoidsglycosidesare:-

1. Flavoneglycosides

Example: Apiin and diosmin

2. Flavonolglycosides  Example:RutinandQuercetin

3. Flavanoneglycosides

Example: Hesperidin and liquiritin

4. Chalcone glycosides Example: carthamin

5. Isoavanoidglycosides

Example: Tephrosin and prunetrin

6. Anthrocyanidin glycosides

 Example:Cyanidinandmalvidin

Flavonoidsareparticularlybenecial,actingasantioxidants andgiving protection against cardiovascular disease, certainforms of cancer, and, itis claimed, age-related degenerationof cell components.Their polyphenolic natureenables them to scavenge injuriousfree radicals

such as superoxide and hydroxyl radicals. Quercetin in

Section 2 Pharmacognosy

169

is almost present in substantial amounts in plant tissues,

andisapowerfulantioxidant,chelatingmetals,scavenging freeradicals, andpreventing oxidation of low density

lipoprotein.

Flavonoidsin red wine (quercetin, kaempferol, and

anthocyanidins) and in tea (catechins and catechin gallate

esters)arealsodemonstratedtobeeffectiveantioxidants. Flavonoids contribute toplant colours, yellows from chalconesand flavonols, and reds, blues,and violets fromanthocyanidins.Eventhecolourlessmaterials,e.g. avones,absorbstronglyintheUVandaredetectableby insects,probablyaidingowerpollination.

Chalcones actasprecursorsforavastrangeofavonoid

derivativesfound throughout the plant kingdom. Flavanonescan then give rise tomany variants on this

basic skeleton, e.g. avones,avonols,anthocyanidins, and catechins

Chemical tests

1. ItexhibitsabrownuorescenceunderUVlight

2.It gives yellowprecipitate with basic lead acetate

solution.

3. Itgivesgreenishbrownprecipitatewithferricchloride.

4. It producesa silver mirror with ammoniacalsilver

nitrate solution.

Biosynthesis: Through acetate pathway and shikimic acid

pathway.

Isothiocyanate Glycosides

Isothiocyanate glycosides contain sulphur and present

inmanyCruciferousplants.Onhydrolysistheyproduce isothiocyanateaglycones.Sinigrinfromblackmustardand sinalbinfromwhitemustardareisothiocyanateglycosides. Sinigrinonhydrolysisinthepresenceofenzymemyrosin,

yields allyl isothiocyanate ,glucose and potassium acid sulphate. These glycosides are irritant and employed as counter irritant in neuralgia and rheumatism.

Chemical test

1. The powdered black mustard seeds on treatment with

sodium hydroxide yields bright yellow colouration.

2. Thehydrolysedproductsofsinalbin(whitemustard)are

crystallineandgiveriseabrightyellowcolourationin

alkaline medium.

Phenolic Glycosides

Simplephenolic glycosides have their aglyconeportion

loaded with phenolic moieties, alcoholic moieties or

carboxylicacid functions. Commonly found phenolic

glycosides are salicin, populin, arbutin, gaultherin etc.

Biosynthesis:-Throughshikimicacidpahway.

Chemical tests:

1. Itgivesabrightyellowcolourationwithconc.sulphuric acidthatfadesoutonadditionofwater.

2. Ityieldsbluecolourationwithferricchloridesolution.

The term phenol (C6H5OH) itself is the first member commonly known as benzenol or carbolic acid. All other members in the family are known as derivatives of phenol and phenolic compounds.

They are produced by the shikimic acid of plants and pentose phosphate through phenylpropanoid metabolization.

Phenolics are plant metabolites secondary in nature widely spread throughout the plant kingdom. They are a family of organic compounds characterized by

hydroxyl (–OH) group attached to an aromatic ring.

Chemistry



Plantphenoliccompoundsarediverseinstructurebut

are characterized by hydroxylated aromatic rings (e.g.

avonols).



Many plant phenolic compounds are polymerized into larger molecules such as the proanthocyanidins and lignins.



Theyform a varied group thatincludes the widely

distributed hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids.



Furthermore,phenolicacidsmay occurinfoodplants

as esters or glycosides conjugated with other natural

compoundssuchasavonoids,alcohols,hydroxyfatty

acids, sterols, and glucosides.

Applications:



Theyhavepotentialprotectiverole,throughingestionof fruitsandvegetables,againstoxidativedamagediseases

(coronary heart disease, stroke, and cancers).



These phenolic compounds are usually related to

defenseresponses in the plant. However, phenolic

metabolites play an important part in other processes,

forinstance incorporating attractive substances to acceleratepollination, colouring for camouage and defenseagainstherbivores,aswellasantibacterialand antifungalactivities

Section 2 Pharmacognosy

170

increase

the force of

contraction of

heart without

increasing

the oxygen

consumption

Killar Killani

test

Cardiac stimulants

Digitoxin

Digitalin

Digitalein

volatile oil fatty matter starch gum sugar

etc.

and slow the

heart rate

when auricular

fibrillation is

present.

Stimulating,

expectorant,

diuretic,

cardiac tonic.

Killar Killani

test

Mucilage

stains

reddish

purple with

iodine water.

This test

distinguishes

between

European

scilla and

Indian scilla.

scillarenase. Three bitter glucosidal

substances namely scillitoxin, scillipicrin

and scillin

Contd...

green

Dried leaflets Greyish

Europe

Great Britain

belonging

to family

Digitalis purpurea

Scrophulariaceae

Foxglove

Bulbs Scillaren A and B and enzyme

European

squill in

Mediterranean

districts,

Portugal,

Morocco,

Algeria,

Corsica

Indian Squill

found in India

including

Urginea indica

Urginea maritima

(Indian squill) and

(European squill)

belonging to

family liliaceae.

Chhoti jungli

squill bulb,

konkan and

saurashtra

Name Synonyms Biological Source Habitat Part Used Characters Chemical Constituents Chemical Test Uses

Cardiac Glycosides

Digitalis Digitalis,

Squill White squill,

Section 2 Pharmacognosy

171

Anal fissures,

Anti-diarrheal,

Anti-

inflammatory,

Cellular

Regeneration,

Children’s

Laxative,

Cleansing,

Constipation,

Detoxifying,

Hemorrhoids,

Laxative,

Pre- and Post-

operative

Borntrager

test

Dianthrone glycosides, aloe-emodin and

rhein 8-glucoside; mucilage; tannins;

flavonoids especially kaempferol.

Senna pods contain higher levels of

glucosennosides and smaller amounts

of anthraquinones glycosides compared

with the leaves.

Contd...

Cleansing.

Greenish

colour

Isobilateral

leaf with

trichomes on

Dried leaflets

(Folium

Sennae),

Pods

(Fructus

dry lands

of southern

& western

India, and

indigenous to

(Tinnevelly

Cassia

Hindisana

senna pods) and

angustifolia

Cassia acutifolia

Sonamukhi

both sides.

The leaf has

asymmetrical

base with

Sennae)

Arabia.

(Alexandrian

senna pods)

belonging

to family

lanceolate

shape,

paracytic

stomata are

Leguminosae

present,

trichomes are

unicellular,

conical, with

thick and

distinctly

warted walls,

prism shaped

calcium

oxalate

crystals,

fibers are

thick-walled,

lignified

with few

pits and are

surrounded

by a calcium

oxalate prism

sheat.

Section 2 Pharmacognosy

172

Name Synonyms Biological Source Habitat Part Used Characters Chemical Constituents Chemical Test Uses

Anthracene glycosides or anthraquinone glycosides

Senna Pod

and Leaves

Aloe has

been used

for its healing

properties,

and both

oral intake

and topical

dressings

include

blisters, insect

bites, rashes,

sores, herpes,

Borntrager

test

Aloins, Barbaloin and Isobarbaloin

Aloin

Barbaloin

Isobarbaloin

urticaria,

athlete’s

foot, fungus,

vaginal

infections,

conjunctivitis,

sties, allergic

reactions, and

dry skin

Contd...

Green on

surface and

slightly bitter.

Leaves and

dried gel.

Aloes are

indigenous

to East and

South Africa

, Aloe ferox,

family Liliaceae

vera

Aloe perryi, Aloe

Ghrita

kumara

Indian aloe

Ghik anvar

kumari

Name Synonyms Biological Source Habitat Part Used Characters Chemical Constituents Chemical Test Uses

Aloe

Section 2 Pharmacognosy

173

Astringent,

tonic,

emmenagogue

and purgative.

Red

colouration

with 5.0%

NaOH, pink

colour with

ammonia,

Borntrager

test positive,

Under

ultraviolet

radiation

Rheum

emodi gives

Anthraquinone derivatives

emodin, aloe-emodin, rhein & physcion

brown colour

and Rheum

rhaponticum

gives violet

colour

Cholagogue,

antispasmodic,

anti-

inflammatory,

antirheumatic,

Stool-softener,

non-habit

forming

stimulant

laxative,

pancreatic

stimulant

5 ml of

distilled water

with 5% KOH

it shows red

colour.

Anthraquinone glycosides, cascarosides

A, B, C and D

and shaken

Saponin, diosgenin, and the alkaloids,

dioscorin and dioscorine

diuretic.

vigorously

for a stable

persistent

Contd...

froth.

Cluster

crystals of

calcium

oxalate

starch

Rhizome,

roots

found in

Astore,

Nagar, Nalter,

Ishkomen,

mostly rocky

dried rhizomes

of Rheum

emodi, family

Polygonaceae

Himalayan

rhubarb

granules

are simple,

spherical and

compound

and sandy

places

with distinct,

deep brown

medullary

rays

to brown in

colour

Quilled,

Bark Pale black

Kashmir,

Himachal

Pradesh,

Bhutan and

belonging

to family

purshiana

Buckthorn Rhamnus

channeled or

flat pieces

the Nilgiris

Rhamnaceae

Sightly

brown, Acrid

Root and

rhizomes

Native to

East Asia;

cultivated

in Assam,

Vadodara,

Tamil Nadu,

D. atropurpurea

Roxb, D. globosa

Roxb, D.

purpurea Roxb

and D. deltoidea

belonging

Greater Yam,

Asiatic Yam

Bengal and

Madhya

Pradesh

to family

Dioscoreaceae

Section 2 Pharmacognosy

174

Name Synonyms Biological Source Habitat Part Used Characters Chemical Constituents Chemical Test Uses

Rhubarb Amlavetusa

Cascara

Bark

Saponin Glycosides

Dioscorea Wild Yam,

Nutritive,

aphrodisiac,

astringent,

used in

treatment

of general

debility, male

infertility (due

to low sperm

Shake drug

with water

persistent

foam is

observed

Four steroidal saponins shatavarins I-IV,

water soluble constituents.

count), loss of

libido, epilepsy

(fits).

Ginseng

is used to

Shake drug

with water

Steroidal saponins called ginsenosides.

The triterpenoid saponins referred

relieve stress,

increase

energy, and

improve

mental acuity.

persistent

foam is

observed

to collectively as ginsenosides or

panaxosides.

Contd...

green, Roots

are white to

buff colour

Dried roots Leaves are

Found all

over India,

especially in

tropical and

Asparagus

racemosus,

belonging to

family liliaceae

Shakakul,

Satavar

sometimes

pale

brownish.

sub-tropical

parts and in

Himalayan

region upto

1400 m.

elevation.

perennial

plant divided

palmate

leaves and

Roots Herbaceous

Found

throughout the

world

(Asian ginseng)

or Panax

quinquefolius

(American

clusters of

red berries in

the autumn.

ginseng),

belonging to

family Araliaceae.

Name Synonyms Biological Source Habitat Part Used Characters Chemical Constituents Chemical Test Uses

Shatavari Satavari,

Section 2 Pharmacognosy

Ginseng Ginseng Panax ginseng

175

It can be

employed as

a substitute

for cod-liver

oil in scrofula,

rickets,

anaemia,

debility

following

infectious

diseases and

spice in curry.

Bara gokhru:

Leaves are

Alkaloids, Trigonelline and Choline, and

a yellow colouring substance

Saponins which on hydrolysis yield

diosgenin, ruscogenin and gitogenin. It

antibilious.

Seeds are

demulcant,

diuretic, tonic,

muscilaginous

and

aphrodesiac.

Used in male

impotence,

gonorrhoea,

and

incontinence.

Chotta

Gokhru: The

also contain three flavone glycosides,

traces of alkaloids, fixed oil and

potassium nitrate.

roots and

fruits are

sweet, coling,

emollient,

appetizer,

alternate,

laxative,

cardiotonic,

styptic,

lithontriptic

and tonic.

Contd...

Yellow hard

seeds with

irregularly

rhomboidal

and flattened

Seeds, pods

and leaves

It is cultivated

in India,

Africa, Egypt,

Morocco, and

occasionally

Trigonella

foenum-graecum

belonging to

family Fabaceae

Fenugreek

Methi

Mentulu

shape

in England.

Whole plant,

fruits and

seeds.

Large gokhru

consists of

dried ripe fruits

of Pedalium

murex belonging

Farib duti

Kadva

gokhru

Gokhuri

to family

pedaliaceae.

Small gokhru

consists of dried

ripe fruits of

Tribulus terrestris

belonging

to family

Zygophyllaceae.

Section 2 Pharmacognosy

176

Name Synonyms Biological Source Habitat Part Used Characters Chemical Constituents Chemical Test Uses

Methi Seeds Medhika

Gokharu Bara gokhru

Effective

expectorant,

useful in

conventional

Aqueous

extract

treated

and

naturopathic

medicine for

both mouth

with FeCl

gives dark

colouration.

Aqueous

ulcers and

peptic ulcers.

)

extract

treated with

mineral acid

(HCl/H

gives reddish

orange

colouration

Antioxidant

properties.

as a nootropic,

a drug that

enhances

cognitive

ability.

it is bitter,

pungent,

heating,

emetic,

Test for

triterpenoids

saponins

Alkaloids brahmine

hersaponin

bacoside A and bacoside B, betulic

acid, β sitosterol and stigmasterol

laxative and

useful in bad

ulcers

Contd...

brown to dark

brown

Peeled drug

Roots Yellowish

Natives of

South-east

Europe and

South-west

Glycyrrhiza

glabra, belonging

leguminosae

madhu

Sweetwood,

Liquorice

is fibrous and

angular in

shape.

Abundant

simple starch

Asia

Mithilakdi,

Mulathee

granules,

abundant

fibers calcium

oxalate prism

sheath,

lignified

xylem

parenchyma,

thin-walled

parenchyma

Whole plant Perennial

Commonly

Bacopa monnieri

creeping herb

with small

white flowers.

succulent

found

throughout

Southeast

Asia

belonging

to family

Scrophulariaceae.

Hyssop

Nirbrahmi

Jalanevari

leaves are

sessile

Name Synonyms Biological Source Habitat Part Used Characters Chemical Constituents Chemical Test Uses

Triterpeniod saponins

Glycyrrhiza Yashti-

Brahmi Water

Section 2 Pharmacognosy

177

Aphrodisiac,

cardiotonic,

urinary

astringent,

expectorant,

Fluorescence

Analysis

alexiteric

and is useful

in fractures,

ulcers,

cirrhosis of

the lever,

hyperhidrosis,

otalgia and

hypertension.

Contd...

Used in

bronchitis,

asthma,

tracheitis,

emphysema

and

inflammation

of the

respiratory

tract

Shake drug

with water,

persistent

foaming is

seen

Triterpenoid saponins, senegin, polygalic

acid, sapogenin, sengins, phenolic acids,

methyl salicylate and polygalitol.

deciduous

tree. Leaves

are Simple,

4–6” long

Dried bark 40 meter high

common

throughout

India

especially

in the sub-

Terminalia

arjuna, family

Combretaceae

Myrobalan

oppositely

arranged,

rectangular

or oval.

Himalayan

tracts and

Eastern India.

Longitudinal

stratified

First sweet

than bitter,

acrid and

Dried roots

and root

Stocks

North western

U.S.A.,

India (Indian

Senega)

chinensis

Polygala senega

linn and Polygala

belonging

to family

Senega root,

Senega snake

root, Radix

senegae,

Rattlesnake

irritating

Polygalaceae.

root

Section 2 Pharmacognosy

178

Name Synonyms Biological Source Habitat Part Used Characters Chemical Constituents Chemical Test Uses

Arjuna Bark Arjuna

Senega

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