Учебное пособие по английскому языку с упражнениями по развитию креативного мышления. Часть 2

disposal n 1. ɩɟɪɟɞɚɱɚ, ɢɡɛɚɜɥɟɧɢɟ 2. ɪɟɚɥɢɡɚɰɢɹ 3. ɩɪɚɜɨ ɪɚɫɩɨɪɹɠɚɬɶɫɹ interpret v 1. ɢɧɬɟɪɩɪɟɬɢɪɨɜɚɬɶ 2. ɩɟɪɟɜɨɞɢɬɶ

representative n ɩɪɟɞɫɬɚɜɢɬɟɥɶ, ɭɩɨɥɧɨɦɨɱɟɧɧɵɣ within the framework – ɜ ɪɚɦɤɚɯ, ɜ ɩɪɟɞɟɥɚɯ

Ex. 7. Make questions on the text above.

Ex. 8. Retell the text.

EDUCATION IN RUSSIA

There were only 549 schools and 62,000 students in Russia by the end of the 18th century. The overwhelming majority of the students, about 53,000 of them, were pupils of elementary schools. What is to be understood by the term "elementary school"? For instance 15,000 children attended schools providing only two-year education. Although the scope of education was extended by the beginning of the 19th century, even in 1834 only a mere 245,000 people, i.e. 0.49 percent of the population attended schools, and the great majority of these consisted of pupils of elementary schools. In 1856 the number of students increased to 450,000, i.e. 0.7 percent of the total population. 300,000 of these attended schools at towns and cities, where the rate of school attendance reached 5.8 percent.

The state of literacy in the 1850's and 1860's may be concluded from the findings of the census of 1897. Of those over 60 (who had been at least 13 years old in 1850) the rate of literacy amounted to 47 percent with male city dwellers. According to statistical data, ratios were even worse among women. On a national scale 85 percent of these age-groups (80 percent of men and 90 percent of women) turned out to be illiterate.

The situation seemed to be somewhat more favorable in the younger agegroups. Of the young men summoned before the recruiting commissions 22 percent proved to be literate in 1880, 21 percent in 1890, 49 percent in 1900, and 65 percent in 1910. The census taken of the population of the European territories of the Soviet Union in 1920 established that 33 percent of the population as a whole was literate: 42.2 percent of men and 25.5 percent of women could read and write.

In the second half of the 19th century education was furthered by two factors: the emancipation of the serfs and the emergence of manufacturing industry. The number of children attending primary schools increased four and a half fold between 1856 and 1885. Naturally, the secondary and higher educational institutions were attended mainly by the children of the ruling classes and strata. As in all other societies of that period, selection was guaranteed by the costs of education as well as social conventions. The extremely backward conditions of

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Tsarist Russia were reflected by a decree issued by Alexander III (1881 — 1894) who seemed dissatisfied with the highly effective selection of the class society. Therefore he issued a decree "on children of cooks" stipulating that the children of servants, cooks, vendors and similar crafts should not be permitted to attend grammar-schools "since this might incite them to rebellion against their parents and they might become disgruntled with their conditions of life".

Ex. 9. Make a report on the text above.

Ex. 10. Discuss the text above in pairs.

Ex. 11. Retell the text.

Tax Incentives and Subsidies

In a mixed economy, planning will entail special encouragement and discouragement in many directions. The higher the level and the greater the coverage of taxation, the more can tax incentives, tax rebates and the instrument of differential taxation be used, without any special organization, for promoting certain activities and restraining others. Every tax incentive, however, means a revenue loss; and where resource mobilization is an urgent problem, it entails a serious sacrifice. A tax preference or concession often creates an additional loophole. Only when the objective is really worthwhile and the tax weapon is the optimum instrument to achieve it, a tax loss may be permissible. A tax incentive increases private post-tax profitability by reducing tax liability, and is, therefore, inferior to other promotional activities such as provision of better information and technical guidance and setting up of organizations like co-operative societies which reduce the real social costs of production and distribution. It is the latter kind of activities with built-in external economies which deserve powerful State support. Small producers and backward areas do not have the necessary capacity to make the best use of tax incentives; they need more direct production and infrastructural facilities. Organized units, on the other hand, will be in a position to avail themselves fully of tax concessions. One must, therefore, be sparing in granting tax incentives, keep a full account of them, and periodically evaluate them. Unfortunately, this has seldom been done in India.

The fiscal and financial incentives to large-scale units have been examined in some detail by the Working Group on Financial and Fiscal Measures of the official Committee on Unemployment. Their comments on the uncoordinated and haphazard manner in which these incentives have been offered make profitable reading. To take only a few instances, many of the incentives are linked to the use of capital. The development rebate is linked to the installation of fixed capital and machinery; the provision for tax holiday is linked to the percentage of profits to employed capital, so that profits accruing through increased labour productivity get no advantage. In a capital-scarce economy, labour-intensive techniques need

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special encouragement. The spectrum of available techniques in modern industries is biased in favour of capital-intensive methods because of our reliance on Western technology and research, and because of our inability to innovate and adopt techniques more appropriate to our endowment; but there is no reason why, within the spectrum, special incentives should be given to capital employment. Only in very special cases, where capital-intensive units may lead, by way of linkages, to the setting up of important labour-intensive units, exceptions may be made. In a rapidly developing economy subject to inflationary pressures, units should not normally need the bait of a development rebate. If delays in industrial licensing or in import licensing, inadequate availability of crucial materials, rigid price control or other wrong policies contribute to the uneconomic working of the units, it is at these ends that remedial action should be mounted, since such action will reduce real costs.

Vocabulary

concession n 1. ɭɫɬɭɩɤɚ, ɫɤɢɞɤɚ (ɜ ɰɟɧɟ), ɥɶɝɨɬɚ 2. ɤɨɧɰɟɫɫɢɹ discouragement n ɩɪɟɩɹɬɫɬɜɢɟ

encouragement n ɩɨɨɳɪɟɧɢɟ, ɩɨɞɞɟɪɠɤɚ, ɫɬɢɦɭɥɢɪɨɜɚɧɢɟ endowment n 1. ɜɤɥɚɞ, ɞɚɪ, ɩɨɠɟɪɬɜɨɜɚɧɢɟ, ɛɥɚɝɨɬɜɨɪɢɬɟɥɶɧɵɣ ɮɨɧɞ 2. ɧɚɡɧɚɱɟɧɢɟ ɜɤɥɚɞɚ, ɩɟɪɟɞɚɱɚ ɮɨɧɞɚ 3. ɞɚɪɨɜɚɧɢɟ, ɬɚɥɚɧɬ

entail v ɩɨɜɥɟɱɶ ɡɚ ɫɨɛɨɣ haphazard adj ɛɟɫɫɢɫɬɟɦɧɵɣ permissible adj ɞɨɩɭɫɬɢɦɵɣ

rebate n 1. ɫɤɢɞɤɚ, ɭɫɬɭɩɤɚ 2. ɜɨɡɜɪɚɬ ɩɟɪɟɩɥɚɬɵ 3. ɜɵɱɟɬ ɩɪɨɰɟɧɬɨɜ urgent adj ɫɪɨɱɧɵɣ, ɧɟɨɬɥɨɠɧɵɣ. ɛɟɡɨɬɥɚɝɚɬɟɥɶɧɵɣ

Ex. 12. Make a plan of the text above. Give your personal opinion about the text above orally.

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ɋ.Ʌ. Ȼɭɤɨɜɫɤɢɣ

ɍɑȿȻɇɈȿ ɉɈɋɈȻɂȿ ɉɈ ȺɇȽɅɂɃɋɄɈɆɍ əɁɕɄɍ ɋ ɍɉɊȺɀɇȿɇɂəɆɂ ɉɈ ɊȺɁȼɂɌɂɘ ɄɊȿȺɌɂȼɇɈȽɈ ɆɕɒɅȿɇɂə

ɑȺɋɌɖ 2

(ɞɥɹ ɫɬɭɞɟɧɬɨɜ ɷɤɨɧɨɦɢɱɟɫɤɢɯ ɫɩɟɰɢɚɥɶɧɨɫɬɟɣ)

ɂɡɞɚɬɟɥɶɫɬɜɨ «ɉɪɨɦɟɬɟɣ» 129164 Ɇɨɫɤɜɚ, ɭɥ. Ʉɢɛɚɥɶɱɢɱɚ, ɞ. 6, ɫɬɪ. 2

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