Иностранный язык (английский). Political and social matters. Учебно-методическое пособие

nations or ethnic groups so that they are in different nations. This division has become a major source of conflict and war.

Read the text and translate it into Russian in the written form. State its idea orally.

A Membership in the Interstate System

A nation is considered a member of the international system if other nations recognize the authority of its government. Other nations can formally extend this recognition by establishing diplomatic relations with that nation. A nation can also become recognized by being admitted as a member of the UN. Recognition does not imply that a government has popular support, only that it controls the territory within its borders and has agreed to assume the nation‟s obligations in the international system. These obligations include respecting the internationally recognized borders of other nations, assuming the international debts of the previous government, and not interfering in the internal affairs of other nations.

The legal basis for the universal application of these principles (of the interstate system) is the charter of the UN, adopted in 1945.

Read the text and say which of the enumerated patterns of relations you consider the most effective for the modern society. Ground your choice. Render the text in English.

B Structure of Relationships

Throughout the history of the interstate system, the relationships between nations have been structured in various ways, depending on how power was distributed among them. For example, power may be concentrated in one or two nations, which then set and enforce the rules for other countries. The predominance of one nation is called hegemony. Historical examples of hegemony include Great Britain after 1815 and the United States after 1945 – periods when these nations were the most powerful in the world, dominating trade and military relationships.

Power may also be distributed more equally among a half-dozen great powers and other somewhat weaker nations. In this case, alliances between nations play a crucial role in structuring their interactions. Power can also be distributed relatively equally among nations or alliances of nations. This is called a balance of power. Some political leaders believe that peace is best preserved this way because no one nation can win a war easily. The

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evidence for this theory, however, is not strong. The opposite proposition, called power transition theory, has more support. This theory suggests that peace is most likely when one nation predominates, or when two opposing but equally powerful nations do. In this theory, major wars are likely when a challenger starts to surpass a dominant nation in power.

What do you think influences the interstate system? Will there be a need to modify it? Read the text and compare your ideas with those in the text.

C Future of the Interstate System

Today, many of the foundations of the interstate system are being challenged by changes in technology and international norms. The idea of territorial integrity and a nation‟s sovereignty–that is, its absolute authority over its own internal matters - are being undermined. Neither ballistic missiles nor television signals respect borders. Television, the mass media, telephones, and the Internet are erasing the boundaries between nations, blending once-distinct cultures together and expanding transnational connections. Mass communication is also drawing worldwide attention to domestic issues that in the past were of little concern to other nations, such as human rights, the status of women, environmental practices, and democracy. In addition, the territories of nations are changing. Some nations are becoming integrated into larger entities – for example, the European Union. Others are fragmenting into smaller units, as did the Soviet Union.

Read the text and say what caused the introduction of the Bush doctrine. Make a summary.

D The Bush Doctrine

In September 2002 the Administration of United States President George W. Bush outlined a radically new foreign policy. Known as the Bush doctrine, it sought to prevent other nations from obtaining weapons of mass destruction by adopting a policy of preemptive war (striking first). It also announced that the United States would maintain unquestioned military supremacy by not allowing any other nation to emerge as a potential military rival. The Bush doctrine removed two key pillars that held U.S. foreign policy in place for more than 50 years: the policy of deterrence, which sought to prevent a nuclear attack by threatening massive retaliation and the policy of containment, which held that U.S. military forces needed only to

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be strong enough to contain any aggressor. Critics characterized the new stance as an arrogant statement of power that threatened to alienate world opinion and jeopardize the role of international institutions such as the United Nations (UN).

These changes have led to a debate among scholars about whether the interstate system will survive in its current form or evolve into another system that does not yet exist. Some scholars believe nations–with their different cultural identities, boundaries, and governments–are becoming obsolete. They believe economics is becoming the driving force in international relations, encouraging increased cooperation among nations. They believe that cooperation, along with technological changes, will continue to blur the distinction between nations and the importance of national borders. Other scholars think that the interstate system will endure because nations have military force, and military force still determines what happens in the world and always will. Both are right to some extent. The interstate system of nations remains intact, but it is increasingly overlaid with new forces and realities that respect neither the idea of sovereignty nor borders.

After-reading tasks

I. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and expressions: infringe upon, interfere in, to codify, to enforce rules, power of world

censure, to invade, to impose upon, to recognize the authority, to assume the nation‟s obligations, to assume the international debts, the legal basis, to distribute power, to play crucial role, balance of power, power transition theory, to surpass a nation in power, to challenge the foundations of the interstate system, to undermine a nation‟s sovereignty, domestic issues, entity, to outline a foreign policy, a policy of preemptive war, unquestioned military supremacy, key pillar, the policy of deterrence, to threaten massive retaliation, to contain an aggressor, arrogant statement of power, to become obsolete, to blur the distinction between nations, to remain intact

II Give English equivalents to the following words and expressions:

законная территория, вести честную игру, цензура, развиться во что-либо, отсутствие центральной власти, внутренние дела, создавать союз с другими государствами, международно признанные границы, вторгаться, основной источник войны, устанавливать дипломатические отношения, принимать на себя внешние долги, вмешиваться во внутренние дела других государств, Устав ООН, превосходство одного государства над другим, играть решающую роль, сохранять мир, теория перераспределения власти, подрывать территориальную целостность,

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стирать границы государства, оружие массового поражения, бесспорное военное превосходство, потенциальный военный противник, стратегия сдерживания, подвергать опасности роль международных институтов, ведущая сила, до некоторой степени.

III. Paraphrase the following word combinations: rightful territory

world censure

to assume the international debts the UN Charter

territorial integrity large entity preemptive war

IV. Make true or false statements to the text. V. Continue ideas from the text

1.According to the traditions of the interstate system, one nation should not ……………………………………………………………………….…..

2.The most important characteristic of the interstate system …………..

3.Recognition does not imply that ……………………………………..

4.Hegemony is …………………………………………………………

5.A balance of power is ………………………………………………..

6.The power transition theory suggests that ……………………………

7.TV, mass media, telephones ………………………………………….

8.The Bush doctrine removed ………………………………………….

VI. Answer the following questions:

1.Give the definition of the interstate system.

2.What enabled the interstate system to evolve?

3.In what way does the lack of a central authority make nations relate to

each other?

4.Touch upon some most important rules of the interstate system.

5.Under what conditions can a nation be considered a member of the international system?

6.What are the three main patterns of power distribution? How do they differ from each other?

7.Identify the pattern of power distribution in the present.

8.Why do high technologies and international norms challenge a nation‟s territorial integrity and sovereignty?

9.What is the concept of the Bush doctrine?

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UNIT III. RELIGION

Warm-up

1.Are you a (deeply) religious person or an atheist?

2.Were you brought up in a particular religion?

3.Do you follow all the customs, rules and traditions of this religion?

4.How has the religion affected your life?

Text 1

Pre-reading task

In pairs, answer the following questions:

1.How would you define the word religion?

2.Which fundamental questions do all religions try to provide answers

to?

3. Which religions are there in the world? What do they have in common?

Read the text and compare your answers with the information given by the author.

Introduction

FROM COMPTON’S INTERACTIVE ENCYCLOPEDIA

It has been said that thoughts of death lead necessarily to the development of religion. It is difficult to imagine what need there would be for religion in a world in which no one ever died or became ill. The literatures of all religions attempt to give answers to basic questions: From where did the world come? What is the meaning of human life? Why do people die and what happens afterward? Why is there evil? How should people behave? In the distant past, these questions were answered in terms of mythology. In literature, they are dealt with in poetry. Modern sciences try to investigate them.

As a word religion is difficult to define, but as a human experience it seems to be universal. The twentieth century German-born American theologian Paul Tillich gave a simple and basic definition of the word. “Religion is ultimate concern.” This means that religion encompasses that to which people are most devoted or that from which they expect to get the most fundamental satisfaction in life. Consequently, religion provides adequate answers to the most basic questions posed above.

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Four centuries earlier the German social reformer Martin Luther spoke in similar terms about God. He stated that to have a god was to “have something in which the heart trusts completely.” Putting Tillich‟s and Luther‟s definitions together, it is possible to see that religion does not necessarily have to be involved with shrines, temples, churches or synagogues. It does not need complex doctrines or clergy. It can be anything to which people devote themselves that fills their lives with meaning.

In Western civilization, religion has traditionally been defined as belief in and worship of one God. This is true for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The statements by Tillich and Luther make it clear, however, that such a definition may be too narrow. In original Buddhism in India and Confucianism in China, there was no recognition of a supreme being. Both of these philosophies were basically concerned with patterns of human behaviour.

Regardless of definition, all religions (as the word is normally used) have certain elements in common: rituals to perform, prayers to recite, places to frequent or avoid, holy days to keep, means by which to predict the future, a body of literature to read and study, truths to affirm, charismatic leaders to follow, and ordinances to obey. Many have buildings set aside for worship, and there are activities such as prayer, sacrifice, contemplation, and perhaps magic.

Closely associated with these elements is personal conduct. Although it is possible to separate ritual observances from moral conduct, worship has normally implied a type of relationship with a god from which certain behaviour patterns are expected to follow. A notable exception in history is the official state religion of ancient Rome, which was kept separate from personal commitment and morality.

Text 2

The world’s principal religions

Nowadays the world’s principal religions include the following religious faiths:

1. Christianity or the Christian religion. This religion is based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and is named after him. Jesus Christ was expected to save the Jews. He established Christianity and was considered by the Christians to be the son of the God. Christianity was established in the 1st century AD and later developed into a ruling religion. Now it is one of the world‟s major religions. In the course of time Christianity was di-

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vided into several branches. Roman Catholicism is a branch of the Christian religion, the Roman Catholic Church, whose leader, the Pope, rules from Rome. Protestantism is a part of the Christian Church that separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century. These two religious faiths are the national religions of many countries in Europe, North and South America, and Australia. The third major branch of Christianity is Orthodox. The Orthodox Church or the Eastern (Greek) Church is contrasted with Roman or Western Church. It came into being with the fall of the Roman Empire in the 4th century and developed into a world‟s major religion in the IX-XI centuries in the Eastern part of the Roman Empire, Byzantium. Nowadays the Orthodox Church includes the national churches of Eastern Europe. Among the other Christian faiths is the Anglican Church or the Church of England which was established in the 16th century as a branch of the Christian Church and now it has about 30 mln followers. All in all, there are over 1.6 billion total Christians in the world.

2.Islam. The founder of this religion is the great Arabian prophet Mohammed or Muhammad (570(?) – 632 AD). The followers of Islam are called Moslems or Muslims. The religious faith is the national religion of many countries in Asia and Africa. The followers of this religion worship

Allah (the Arabic word for “God”).

3.Buddhism. This religion is founded by Buddha, the great religious teacher who lived in India about 2500 years ago. The followers of this religion are called Buddhists. This is the national religion of India and some other countries of Asia.

4.Judaism, the religion of the Jews.

5.Hinduism, the religious system of the Hindus (the largest social and religious subdivision of the population of India).

In modern societies religious behaviour is organized in four basic forms: the ecclesia, the denomination, the sect, and the cult.

An ecclesia is a religious organization that claims to include most of or all the members of a society and is recognized as the national or official religion. Examples of an ecclesia include the Lutheran church in Sweden, the Catholic Church in Spain, Islam in Iran. In a society with an ecclesia the political and religious institutions often act in harmony and mutually reinforce each other, though within the modern world, the ecclesia tends to be declining in power.

A denomination is a large, organized religion that is not officially linked with the state and government. Though considered respectable within a society, it lacks the official recognition and power held by an ecclesia. No

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nation of the world has more denominations than the United States because many settlers in “the new world” brought with them the native religions of their homelands. Thus, there is a diversity of Christian religions in the United States and some non-Christian faiths as well.

A sect is a relatively small religious group that has broken away from some other religious organization to renew what it views as the original vision of the faith. Sects are fundamentally at odds with society, they are often short-lived and do not seek to become established national religions.

A cult is a generally small, secretive religious group that represents either a new religion or a major innovation of an existing faith.

Sociologists have recognized the critical importance of religion in human societies. They see its appeal for the individual and due to that appeal they view religion as a social institution and evaluate its impact on human societies.

Since religion is a cultural universal, it fulfills several basic functions within human societies. In viewing religion as a social institution sociologists stress the following functions of religion in modern society: integration, social control, and social support. Religion offers people meaning and purpose for their lives, it gives them certain ultimate values which help a society to function as an integrated social system, reinforce other social institutions and the social order as a whole. Religion can offer people social support. Most of us find it difficult to accept the stressful events of life – death of a loved one, serious illness, bankruptcy, divorce, and so forth, especially when something “senseless” happens. Religion encourages us to view our personal misfortunes as relatively unimportant, as being “God‟s will”. This perspective may be much more comforting than the terrifying feeling that any of us can die senselessly at any moment. Besides, religion offers consolidation to people by giving them hope that they can achieve eternal happiness in an afterlife.

But not all social scientists look upon religion in this perspective. Karl

Marx described religion as an “opiate” particularly harmful to oppressed peoples. In his view and later in the view of conflict theorists, religion often drugged the masses into submission by offering them a consolation for their harsh lives on earth: the hope for happiness in an ideal afterlife. In simpler terms, religion keeps people from seeing their lives in political terms and diverts their attention from earthly problems. From Marx‟s perspective, religion promotes stability within society and therefore helps to maintain social inequality. Religion reinforces the interests of those in power and the subordination of the powerless. Finally, Marxists suggest that religion les-

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sens the possibility of collective political action that can end oppression and transform society.

In contemporary industrial societies, scientific and technological advances have increasingly affected all aspects of life, including the social institution of religion. The term secularization refers to the process through which religion‟s influence on social life diminishes. But despite the fact that this process is evident and other social institutions – such as the economy, politics, and education – maintain independence of religious guidance at present, it would be incorrect to conclude that religion is in decline. Religion will survive in the private spheres of individual and family life and on a personal level because people appear to be turning to religion as they lose confidence in other important institutions of social life. At present, religion continues to be an important influence on human society.

After-reading tasks

Answer the following questions:

1.What are the world‟s principal religions?

2.What are the basic forms of organized religious behaviour? What is the difference between them?

3.Why do you think sociologists have recognized the critical importance of religion in human societies?

4.What are the main functions of religion, if viewed from sociological perspective? How are these functions fulfilled by religion?

5.In what perspective did Karl Marx and other conflict theorists look upon religion?

6.What diminishes the role and influence of religion in the contemporary society?

7.Which sociological approaches to religion do you share and why?

8.Do you agree that religion will remain an important aspect of life in modern industrial societies?

_____________________________________________________________

Exercises:

I. Fill in the gaps with the appropriate words from the texts:

1.The tribe practiced r__________ that mixed native beliefs and Christianity.

2.Protestantism and Roman Catholicism are both d___________ of the Christian faith.

3.S_______ is religious group that has developed from a larger religion and is considered to have extreme or unusual beliefs or customs.

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