Иностранный язык (английский язык). Перевод и разговорная речь. Учебное пособие

Before the printing press was invented, any writings and drawings had to be completed painstakingly by hand. It wasn’t just anyone who was allowed to do this. Such work was usually reserved for scribes who lived and worked in monasteries. The monasteries had a special room called a “scriptorium.” There, the scribe would work in silence, first measuring and outlining the page layouts and then carefully copying the text from another book. Later the illuminator would take over to add designs and embellishments to the pages. In the Dark Ages and Middle Ages, books were usually only owned by monasteries, educational institutions or extremely rich people. Most books were religious in nature. In some cases, a family might be lucky enough to own a book, in which case it would be a copy of the Bible.

5. Translate the text from English into Russian Illustrations and Colour Printing

In three kinds of printing—relief, intaglio, and planographic—illustrations are often produced by the halftone process, in which a plate is made by photographing through glass marked with a network of fine lines (see also photoengraving). A usual form of colour printing is by the Ben Day, or Benday, process, invented by New York printer Benjamin Day, which utilizes celluloid sheets to achieve proper shading and colour. Printing in colours is sometimes done, as excellently in Japan, by applying inks of different colours by hand to the printing surface, but usually a separate printing surface is used for each ink.

In full-colour printing four standard colours are used—yellow, cyan (a hue between blue and green), magenta, and black—the first three being the complementary colours of blue, red, and green. Other colours are produced by printing one colour over another, as green by printing cyan on yellow. Black is used to print the text accompanying the illustration, and it is often used as a fourth colour in the illustration itself to add strength and detail.

6. Translate the text from English into Russian Modern Innovations

In recent years the use of photographic processes has expanded greatly, and the development of electronic devices, as well as other technological advances, has introduced a new era in the evolution of printing. The development of typewriters and personal computers capable of delivering justified and proportionally spaced copy has made possible the production of camera-ready books and has met the demands for several special types of printing.

Perhaps the most revolutionary innovation has been the introduction of photocomposition machines for setting type by photographic means. Two

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of these are analogous in principle to the Monotype and Intertype casting machines and have been produced by the respective companies under the trademarks of Monophoto and Intertype Fotosetter. The Linofilm is a phototypesetting machine developed by the Linotype Corporation. The Photon machine, invented by the Frenchmen Renй Higonnet and Louis Moyroud, using an electric typewriter connected with a computer and a photographing unit, is noteworthy. Almost exclusively electronic, it can deliver justified type on film in a wide variety of styles at extraordinary speed.

7. Translate the text from English into Russian Printer Characteristics

Printers can be classified by the following characteristics:

•quality of type: The output produced by printers is said to be either letter quality, near letter quality, or draft quality. Only daisy-wheel, ink-jet, and laser printers produce letter-quality type. Some dot-matrix printers claim letterquality print, but if you look closely, you can see the difference.

•speed: Measured in characters per second (cps) or pages per minute (ppm), the speed of printers varies widely. Daisy-wheel printers tend to be the slowest, printing about 30 cps. Line printers are fastest (up to 3,000 lines per minute). Dot-matrix printers can print up to 500 cps, and laser printers range from about 4 to 20 text pages per minute.

•impact or non-impact: Impact printers include all printers that work by striking an ink ribbon. Daisy-wheel, dot-matrix, and line printers are impact printers. Non-impact printers include laser printers and ink-jet printers. The important difference between impact and non-impact printers is that impact printers are much noisier.

•graphics: Some printers (daisy-wheel and line printers) can print only text. Other printers can print both text and graphics.

•fonts: Some printers, notably dot-matrix printers, are limited to one or a few fonts. In contrast, laser and ink-jet printers are capable of printing an almost unlimited variety of fonts. Daisy-wheel printers can also print different fonts, but you need to change the daisy wheel, making it difficult to mix fonts in the same document.

8. Translate the text from English into Russian How the printing press works

With the original printing press, a frame is used to set groups of type blocks. Together, these blocks make words and sentences; however, they are all in reverse. The blocks are all inked and then a sheet of paper is laid on the blocks.

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All of this passes through a roller to ensure that the ink is transferred to the paper. Finally when the paper is lifted, the reader can see the inked letters that now appear normally as a result of the reversed blocks. These printing presses were operated by hand. Later towards the 19th century, other inventors created steam-powered printing presses that did not require a hand operator. In comparison, today’s printing presses are electronic and automated, and can print far faster than ever before!

Impact of the printing press

Gutenberg’s invention made a dramatic impact when it reached the public. At first, the noble classes looked down on it. To them, hand-inked books were a sign of luxury and grandeur, and it was no match for the cheaper, mass-produced books. Thus, printed materials were at first more popular with the lower classes. When word spread about the printing press, other print shops opened and soon it developed into an entirely new trade. Printed texts became a new way to spread information to vast audiences quickly and cheaply. Academics benefited from this dissemination of scholarly ideas and even politicians found that they could garner the public’s interest through printed pamphlets. An important side effect was that people could read and increase their knowledge more easily now, whereas in the past it was common for people to be quite uneducated. This increased the discussion and development of new ideas. Another significant effect was that the printing press was largely responsible for Latin’s decline as other regional languages became the norm in locally printed materials.

9. Translate the text from English into Russian Modern photocomposition

Today photocomposition has been adopted in lithography, gravure, and letterpress printing, and its use, together with other electronic techniques, has revolutionized the printing industry. In recent years some newspapers have started to use pagination systems, in which newspapers are electronically composed by computer, output to a negative, and a plate is made of the negative.

Many reproduction processes other than those cited above have also been developed. Xerography, or electrostatic printing, has been widely adopted for photocopying; it is also the basis of the laser printer, one type of computer printer. It is also an effective means of producing master plates for offset printing. One xerographic device is used for making full-size reprints of out- of-print books from microfilm. Other duplicating processes of commercial importance are the Multigraph, which operates on the letterpress principle; the Multilith, basically a small offset press; the Ditto, a duplicator using

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a special fluid to remove ink from the master plate and transfer it to the paper; and the well-known photostat process. The development in the 21century of machines for on-demand printing (using xerography) now allows an individual to print an appropriate computer file as a bound book in a retail store in a matter of minutes.

10. Translate the text from English into Russian Printing

Printing is a branch of technology comprising all technical means for the multiple reproduction of texts and illustrations. In contrast to other methods of multiple reproduction (such as Photostatting), printing involves the transfer of an ink layer from some reservoir to a receiving surface (most often paper), producing a facsimile of the original to be copied. The printing industry comprises enterprises that produce such printed matter as books, newspapers, magazines, posters, and maps. It serves as the material and technical base of the publishing industry.

Printing has a long and complex history. Its origin was the invention of the printing press by J. Gutenberg around 1440. As early as the 16th century printing had become a developed industry. In the 19th century, with the invention of the printing machine, a revolution took place in the printing industry. At this time, enterprises producing printing equipment developed. The scientific and technological revolution that has been going on since roughly 1950 has led to the electronic production of printing surfaces for all printing techniques. This includes the use of computers for phototypesetting and of electronic colour separators for colour printing. There is wide use of high-speed cylinder offset machines, and automatic continuous-operation lines have been organized at binderies and other finishing facilities. Production is often fully mechanized and automated, and phototelegraphic machinery is used for the transmission of newspaper pages.

11. Translate the text from English into Russian Principal aspects of printing technology

Printing technology has three principal aspects: composition, printing proper, and finishing. Composition entails preparing material that may be used to make a plate—a surface that forms an ink layer corresponding with the design or pattern of the original. Printing proper obtains multiple printed reproductions of the original. Binding and other finishing processes are the final stages of production.

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Composition includes typesetting of copy and preparation of illustrative materials. The text can be set manually or with the aid of a typesetting machine, which supplies type to be used to make a plate or a similar surface for reproduction (for example, in photocopying). Various methods of automatic typesetting have come into wide use. Manual methods of preparing illustrative materials are used as a form of graphic art or for the creation of originals that are subsequently reproduced by photomechanical or other means. The most common manual methods of relief printing are xylography and linoleum engraving. In intaglio printing, dry point, etching, and aquatint are widely used, and in planographic printing, lithography is the most popular process.

Illustrations may also be prepared by photomechanical methods (autotype, photozincography, photolithography, collotype printing) or with electronic engraving machines. An original piece of art to be reproduced is photographed by a reproduction camera. Halftones are photographed through a screen. A negative or positive image is copied onto a metal plate that has been covered with a layer of light-sensitive material. The plate is then subjected to the appropriate treatment and is etched in an etching machine. In the reproduction of multicolour originals, colour separations are prepared by means of colour-divided photography or with the aid of electronic scanners. When it is necessary to print material simultaneously on several machines, the original plate is duplicated. In making duplicates wide use is made of stereotypy and electrolytic methods.

12. Translate the text from English into Russian Basic types of printing processes

There are three. The first involves the depletion of an image existing in an ink reservoir (hectography). Classical printing techniques involve the formation of an image on an intermediate surface—a plate. Techniques involving the electrostatic or electromagnetic transfer of an ink layer are based on the formation of an image on a receiving surface.

Classical printing techniques differ with regard to the method by which the printing and nonprinting elements are distributed. An ink layer may be produced by rubbing the ink through the printing surface (stencilling, mimeographing, rotary press) or by applying ink to the printing surface. In the latter case a spatial (relief and intaglio printing) or physicochemical (planographic printing) division of printing and nonprinting elements is used. In printing processes used in modern publishing, the ink impression is transferred from the original

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plate to the receiving surface directly or with the aid of one (offset printing) or two (Orlov printing) intermediate surfaces.

Printing is performed on presses, of which there are many kinds. Presses differ in printing technique, the design of the printing device, the number of transfers of the ink layer and the way in which the receiving surfaces are fed into the machine. Before printing, a number of preparatory processes are conducted: disposition, tightening, registering, and make-ready.

In small-job printing, the processes of composition and printing are combined. Usually only a small number of copies, most often of an informational or administrative character, are produced.

13. Translate the text from English into Russian Computer and its parts

If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn’t any single part called the “computer.” A computer is really a system of many parts working together. The physical parts, which you can see and touch, are collectively called hardware. (Software, on the other hand, refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do.)

The following scheme shows the most common hardware in a desktop computer system. A laptop computer has similar parts but combines them into a single, notebook-sized package.

The main parts of a computer are as follows: a monitor, a system unit, a mouse (can be replaced by a touchpad system), speakers, and a keyboard.

The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it’s a rectangular box placed on or underneath your desk. Inside this box there are many electronic components that process information. The most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the “brain” of your computer. Another component is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off.

Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device or device.

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14. Translate the text from English into Russian Digital printing

Digital printing can be done in various ways. Two technologies dominate the industry:

•Inkjet – In an inkjet printer the image that needs to be printed is created by small droplets of ink that are propelled from the nozzles of one or more print heads. Inkjet devices can print on a wide range of substrates such as paper, plastic, canvas or even doors and floor tiles. Inkjet printing is used a lot for posters and signage. It is also economical for short run publications such as photo books or small runs of books. In-line inkjet printers are sometimes combined with other types of presses to print variable data, such as the mailing addresses on direct mail pieces. The press shown below is the HP PageWide C500, meant for printing on corrugated board.

•Xerography – In xerographic printers, such as laser printers, the image that needs to be printed is formed by selectively applying a charge to a metal cylinder called a drum. The electrical charge is used to attract toner particles. These particles are transferred to the media that is being printed on. To make sure the toner is fixed properly, the substrate passes through a fuser that melts the toner into the medium. Laser printers are not only used in offices but also for small run printing of books, brochures and other types of document. These printers are also used for transactional printing (bills, bank documents, etc) and direct mail.

In 2009 both techniques jointly accounted for around 15% of the total volume of print.

15. Translate the text from English into Russian Digital printing application

Digital printing is increasingly utilized for print jobs that were previously printing using offset, flexo or screen printing.

•In short run small format (A3 size) printing, digital is taking over from offset for both colour and B&W printing. Quick printers and copy shops print digitally on presses from vendors like Xerox, HP, Canon, and Konica Minolta.

•Labels are also increasingly being printed digitally.

•Billboard and point-of-sale or point-of-purchase jobs are being done by wide-format inkjet devices.

•There is a wide range of small format printers used to print on phone cases, mugs and other products.

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•In book printing publishing companies start to rely more on print-on- demand. The Espresso Book Machine pictured below is well suited for that job.

There are a number of other digital printing processes that are geared towards specific niche markets:

•Dye-sublimation is a printing process in which heat is used to transfer a dye onto the substrate. Dye-sub printers are mainly used for printing on textiles, for proofing and for producing photographic prints. Some printers can print on a variety of materials such as paper, plastic, and fabric.

•In the direct thermal printing process heat is used to change the colour of a special coating that has been applied to paper. This process is used in cash registers but also to add markings, such as serial numbers, to products. For this a transparent ink is used that changes colour when a laser applies heat to it.

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ЧАСТЬ 2

КОСВЕННАЯ РЕЧЬ И СОГЛАСОВАНИЕ ВРЕМЕН DIRECT SPEECH AND REPORTED SPEECH

Утвердительные предложения Positive Sentences

Вопросительные предложения Questions

а) Общие вопросы Yes or No Questions

b) Специальные вопросы Wh-questions

Повелительное наклонение Imperatives

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Если глагол, который вводит косвенную речь, употреблен в настоящем или будущем времени, в косвенной речи время глагола не меняется.

СТРАДАТЕЛЬНЫЙ ЗАЛОГ В КОСВЕННОЙ РЕЧИ REPORTED SPEECH FOR PASSIVE VOICE

При обращении прямой речи в косвенную меняются не только формы глагола, но и наречия места и времени и указанные местоимения.

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