As we can see from the above example with the word contract, the meaning of stylistically neutral words is broad, general and bear no additional information.

2. STYLISTICALLY-COLOURED WORDS

Stylistically-coloured words can be subdivided into two groups: super-neutral and sub-neutral.

Super-neutral words are appropriate in formal situations. The words of formal style fall into 3 groups:

1. Learned words

These words are associated with printed page. They are also called “bookish”. They can be subdivided into:

•scientific prose words – dry, matter-of-fact flavour words;

•“officialese” – official bureaucratic words;

•literary words – lofty words used in descriptive passages of fiction;

•modes of poetic diction – high-flown words used in poetry.

2. Archaisms

These words are old and are not used in modern English. They are subdivided into:

•obsolete words – very rare, cannot be understood without special explanation;

•archaisms – can be understood because they were used in the XIXth century;

•historical words – denote objects or phenomena which have disappeared.

3. Professional Terminology

They are words and phrases used by professional groups of people. Sub-neutral words are used within family members, relatives, or

friends. The words of informal style fall into 3 groups:

1. Colloquial words

Colloquial words can be subdivided into:

•literary colloquial – words used by everybody;

•familiar colloquial – words used mostly by the young and semieducated;

•low colloquial – rough and coarse words used by the illiterate.

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2. Slang

There is no exact definition of slangy words. Besides denoting lowcolloquial words, slang is also used to denote words that are typically used by particular social groups to show that the speaker belongs to this group. Some words from a particular jargon spread outside its special group and become general slang.

Some examples of British slang: crackers – crazy, the year dot – long ago, get the hump – get angry. Some examples of general American slang: buddy – fellow, cabbage – money, smash – a drink.

Professional slang are words which are used by people in their professional activity (ex. tin-fish – submarine, an outer – a knock-out blow).

3. Dialect words

There are certain regional forms of the English language in which dialect words appear. The British dialects are Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western, Southern. The American dialects are Northern, Midland, Southern.

For the United Kingdom received pronunciation (RP) is considered to be the standard, for the USA it is Uniform American English (Californian English).

neutral words : house, milk, dog, cat, to walk, to run; scientific prose : dialectical, emphasize, empirical; “officialese” : hereinafter, de jure, de facto; literary words : heritage, hierarchy, cordial; modes of poetic diction : woe, realm, soliloquy;

archaisms : albeit (although it be that), clad (to clothe), thy (your); professional terminology : performance rating, feasibility study; colloquial : dad, chap, freezer, ain’t;

slang : cutie, undies, jaw-breaker.

The interaction of stylistically-coloured and stylistically-neutral words in one and the same context may cause different stylistic effects. When a super-neutral word is placed in a stylistically-neutral context, it gives the latter either an elevated colouring or a humorous effect, depending on the subject of speech.

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When a sub-neutral word is placed in a neutral context, it lowers the stylistic value of the latter. When a sub-neutral word is placed in a superneutral context or vice-versa, it usually produces a humorous effect.

QUESTIONS TO LECTURE #2

1.What are stylistically-neutral words?

2.What are stylistically-coloured words?

3.What groups do stylistically super-neutral words fall into?

4.What is another name for “bookish” words?

5.What types of archaisms do you know?

6.What is professional terminology?

7.What groups do stylistically sub-neutral words fall into?

8.What is the difference between colloquial words and dialect words?

11.What kind of stylistic effects can interaction between stylistically-neutral and stylistically-coloured words in the same context produce?

EXERCISES TO LECTURE #2

Exercise 1. Give your examples of stylistically-neutral words. Exercise 2. Give your examples of stylistically-coloured words. Exercise 3. Decide which groups the following words belong to:

sylvan, billow, consequence, to cut classes, ouch, to kid.

Exercise 4. Give your own examples of words belonging to different groups.

Exercise 5. Paraphrase the following informal text, using neutral style expressions.

I came to New York State to work on my grant. With all the meeting and presentations I really worked my butt off. Then I had a wild hair up my butt – to go to California from cold New York! And I did it! I met hot wild chicks there who took me to a fru-fru place – Glen Ivy Hot Springs Spa. It was fantastic! Glen Ivy rocked and boomed! We drank like a fish, and we laughed our heads off. I also met a blonde-haired handsome younger man, and we took long strolls by the ocean beach.

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Lecture #3

SET EXPRESSIONS

1.QUOTATIONS

2.PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS. DECOMPOSITION OF PHRASELOGICAL UNITS

3.PROVERBS

4.CLICHES

5.EPIGRAMS

The stylistic devices belonging to the set expressions group are the following: quotations, phraseological units, proverbs, clichés, allusions and epigrams.

1. QUOTATIONS

A quotation is a phrase or a sentence taken from a work of literature or other piece of writing and used to prove a point or support an argument. Quotations are usually marked graphically by inverted commas, dashes or italics. They are also mostly used accompanied by a reference to the author of the quotation. Quotations are especially frequent in scientific texts and in publicistic style.

Quotations

“What you do not want others to do to you, do not do to others.” – Confucius (Chinese philosopher)

“The road to learning by precept is long, but by example short and effective.” – Seneca (Roman philosopher and playwright)

“It is not so much t he example of others we imitate as the reflection of ourselves in their eyes and the echo of ourselves in their words.” – Eric Hoffer (American Philosopher and author)

2. PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS. DECOMPOSITION OF PHRASELOGICAL UNITS

Phraseological units are used as expressive means of language because many of them have their own stylistic colouring. Their meaning

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can be understood only from the combination as a whole. The stylistic device of decomposition of fused set-phrases consists in reviving the independent meanings which make up the component parts of the fusion. When it is done, the unit, as it were, acquires a new life and new expressiveness.

Sometimes proverbs and sayings, set phrases, may be decomposed for creating a humorous effect.

Decomposed set phrases

Too many cooks spoil the broth – Too many cooks spoil the figure. An apple a day keeps the doctor away – An onion a day keeps everybody away.

Where there is a will, there is a way – Where there is a will there is a sobbing relation.

3. PROVERBS

Proverbs are known as short, well-known wise sayings usually in simple language.

Proverbs are expressions of culture that people pass from generation to generation. They are the words of wisdom of a culture. They are lessons that the people of some culture want their children to learn and to live by. And, at last, they are lessons that reflect people’s values and attitudes towards life. These values and attitudes aren’t discussed and questioned or defended. Proverbs carrying them simply serve as some symbol for abstract ideas.

Proverbs are usually didactic and involve imagery. The characteristic feature of proverbs is brevity which is manifested in the omission of articles and connectives.

Proverbs

A good beginning makes a good ending. Better late than never.

Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.

Omission of articles and connectives in proverbs

Tell me who your friend is and I’ll tell you what you are. First think, then speak. Many men, many minds

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4. CLICHES

A cliché is a word or expression which has lost its originality and novelty because it has been overused. A cliché can also be characterised as a kind of stable word combination which has won general recognition and which by its iteration has been accepted as a unit of the language.

All examples of cliché are expressions that were once new and fresh. They won popularity in public and hence have been used so extensively that such expressions now sound boring and at times irritable because they have lost their original colour.

Cliches

It’s a crying shame.

Only time will tell.

Read between the lines.

They all lived happily ever after.

At the speed of light.

5. EPIGRAMS

An epigram is a brief, interesting, memorable and sometimes surprising or satirical statement. Derived from Greek epiraphein which means to “write on” this literary device has been employed for over two millenia. The epigrams are distinguished from aphorism by the presence of wit and sarcasm. Epigrams serve the same purpose as proverbs do.

This literary device is commonly used in poetry, where it appears as a short satirical poem containing pure humour coupled with wisdom. The poets like Alexander Pope, John Donne, William Shakespeare popularized epigram as a literary device during sixteen and eighteen centuries. Jane Wilde, an Irish poet, believed that epigrams were much better than an argumentative speech.

Epigrams

Everything I like is either illegal, immortal or fattening. A thing of beauty is a joy forever (Keats).

Mankind must put an end to war, or war will put an end to mankind (John F. Kennedy).

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Epigrams in literature

To see a world in a grain of sand,

And a heaven in a wild flower,

Hold infinity in the palm of your hand,

And eternity in an hour. (William Blake)

QUESTIONS TO LECTURE #3

1.What are quotations?

2.How are the phraseological units used?

3.What is the decomposition of set phrases used for?

4.What are characteristic features of proverbs?

5.What is cliché?

6.What are the characteristic features of clichés?

7.What is an epigram?

8.Where are the epigrams most commonly used?

EXERCISES TO LECTURE #3

Exercise 1. Give your examples of quotations. Exercise 2. Give your examples of proverbs. Exercise 3. Give your examples of epigrams.

Exercise 4. In the following exercise you will find a list of set expressions. Discuss the meaning of each expression with your groupmates. Then explain what you think each expression means and what cultural value it expresses.

Example: A stitch in time saves nine – It is easier to preserve what you have by timely action. (Promptness)

1.Never say never.

2.God helps those who help themselves.

3.You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make him drink.

4.Lost time is never found again.

5.It’s not whether you win or lose, it’s how you play the game.

6.Genuis is one per cent inspiration and 99 per cent perspiration.

7.Great talkers are never good doers.

8.We have two ears and only one tongue in order that we may hear more and speak less.

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9.To know everything is to know nothing.

10.Many receive advice, only the wise profit by it.

Exercise 5. Here are 15 proverbs with one missing word. Opposite each proverb three words are printed. Indicate what word belongs to the proverb.

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