I. Fill in the blanks below using these phrases and a suitable form of the verbs in the brackets. The first one has been done as an example.

needed to should / ought to have didn’t need to

shouldn’t / oughtn’t to have needn’t have

1. I shouldn’t have taken so much time worrying about the test, because in the end it was really easy and I passed first time.

2. I ___________ (to take) books out on long loan because I found all the information on-line.

3. The supervisor told the pre-service students that they ______________ (to enhance) the pupils intrinsic motivation, as it was especially important for encouraging the learners’ success.

4. Haven’t you submitted your course paper yet? You _________ (to do) it last Friday.

5. I ______________ (to turn up) for the most of lectures and seminars, but I didn’t and, as a result, I failed the course.

6. The supervisor explained to the pre-service teacher that he had placed many learners at a marked disadvantage but he __________ (to do) it, because in this way he discouraged their participation in the classroom activities.

7. You ____________ (to follow) conventions because we wanted to hear inspirational and open-minded attitudes.

• WRITING A SUMMARY

In order to learn to write a summary you should do all the activities.

Reading between the lines

I. In pairs or small groups, discuss the following questions.

1. What kinds of books do you like to read? Why?

2. What kinds of books do you detest reading? Why?

3. What are the ingredients of a 'best seller'?

4. How difficult do you think it would be to write a 'best seller'?

5. Describe the reading habits of most people in your country.

II. Read the texts about reading skills and do the assignments that follow.

Text 1

The notion that reading is one of the most important keys to educational success is agreed by all: newspaper critics, devoted teachers and parents. But what is happening to standards? Employers are critical: "It is a great surprise and disappointment to us to find that our young employees are so hopelessly deficient in their command of English." Many may long for the golden days, but that quotation was from those days - 1921! The complaints of today are remarkably like those of the past.

The latest panic was prompted by a very limited study by a group of educational psychologists using a dubious test. No wonder it was castigated for intellectual sloppiness. Yet there are many detailed research studies that illuminate reading problems. Recently, it was shown that the more lead, aluminum or zinc in a child's body as tested by hair or saliva tests, the lower the reading scores. Did that get widely reported?

The same fears are repeated often: "But are they being taught to read?" The worries appear to be misdirected. Yes, there are serious doubts about whether the present curriculum is helping effective reading, but it is not the early stages that are weak. Nor is it, contrary to much printed panic, because of too little teaching of phonics. It is because we stop developing reading skills except in the teaching of literature. We are extraordinarily good at teaching fiction. Reading for learning is something different but equally important. This is how we grapple with ideas, arguments and the discourse of Higher Education.

Michael Morland,

(The Guardian)

Text 2

The way a reader understands a text depends to a great extent on that reader's purpose in reading the text, and also on that reader's knowledge and beliefs about the world. Therefore, the process of reading is interactive, in that comprehension of a text depends not only on the writer's input but also on the reader's; the writer makes certain assumptions about the prior knowledge of the reader, and this is apparent in the text.

The process of reading is a combination of bottom-up and top-down procedures which interact with each other. At least some of the lower level processes, such as the decoding of letters and words, are mostly automatic for skilled readers. The reader brings a set of higher level skills or 'schemata' to bear on the reading process. These relate to the lexical system, the syntactic system and the semantic system, and are affected by attitude and culture. They enable the reader to make the many inferences required by the writer. Generally schemata can be adjusted to accommodate new information, but if the reader's schemata are inadequate because of a lack of the appropriate background knowledge, then comprehension breaks down.

Finally, it must not be assumed that all readers read in the same way. There are differences in the ways they process the text, and some of these differences may account for the fact that there are 'good' and 'bad' readers. However, little is yet known about how, why and when these differences occur.

A. Now on reading the texts about reading skills, match the sentences to the text which expresses each point.

1. Understanding a reading text is partly dependent on the knowledge of the world.

2. There is nothing wrong with the teaching of reading in the early stages of education.

3. The reasons put forward for the poor teaching of reading are unfounded.

4. Cultural background can affect the way readers process text.

5. Unless we widen the scope of our reading materials, reading standards are unlikely to improve.

6. No real evidence exists as to what makes a reader proficient.

В. Work in groups to discuss these comprehension questions.

Text l

1. What is the phrase 'reading for learning' intended to contrast with?

2. What impression of higher education is the writer trying to create with the words 'grapple with ideas' in the final sentence?

Text 2

1. What exactly does the word 'they' refer to in the sentence “They enable the reader to make the many references required by the writer?

2. Explain the consequences that can occur when 'the reader's schemata are inadequate'.

Connotation

C. Some comprehension questions focus on why the writer uses particular words.

Choose the best answer (a, b or c) to the question below and say why it is correct. Which introductory phrase is useful for answering this type of question?

Text l

Explain why the writer may have chosen to use the phrase 'dubious'?

1. it means it's slightly suspicious

2. to give the impression that the research cannot be trusted

3. it refers to how the test was conducted

D. Here are some other words and expressions from the extracts. Bearing in mind the writer's style and opinion, explain why the writer may have chosen to use them.

Text 1 Text 2

1. long for the golden days 4. input

2. illuminate 5. decoding

3. printed panic 6. breaks down

Summary writing

E. In a paragraph of between 50 and 70 words, summarise, in your own words as far as possible, the reasons mentioned in the texts for why students find reading difficult.

F. Write your own answer to the question. Follow these steps to help you.

1. Try to express the ideas in your own words.

2. Organise the ideas and link them appropriately to form your own paragraph.

3. Check that your paragraph is the right length. If not, expand or shorten it.

4. Edit your paragraph for any errors.

• WRITING: FORMAL AND INFORMAL LETTERS

Study the following material in order to know how to write letters.

Formal letters are written for a variety of reasons –e.g. to present information, to make an application, to recommend someone or something, to complain, to apologise, etc.

Informal letters are written for similar reasons but are usually written to people you know.

A letter should contain:

• An introduction in which the reason for writing is clearly stated. In formal letters, it is often necessary to state who you are.

• A main body in which the task is covered according to the instructions given. Each different issue should be discussed in a separate paragraph. You usually begin each main body paragraph with a topic sentence. Examples and/or explanations are then added in supporting sentences.

• A conclusion in which you restate the main points of the letter and/or state an opinion. For formal letters, any action you want taken should be clearly stated at the end of the letter. In informal letters, you usually end by sending your wishes and perhaps asking the other person to write back.

Formal and Informal Style

How formal your letter needs to be depends on the target reader and the reason for writing. It is very important to maintain the same level of formality throughout your letter (in other words, you should not mix very formal expressions with very informal ones). Study the guidelines.

Formal style includes:

• sophisticated vocabulary • impersonal tone • more frequent use of the passive voice •

•complex grammatical constructions • formal linking devices • advanced vocabulary.

Informal style includes:

• colloquial (spoken) and idiomatic English • personal tone/ direct address • less frequent use of the passive voice • less complex grammatical constructions • simple linking devices • less advanced vocabulary • contractions.

Beginnings and Endings

Formal letters

Remember that formal letters begin and end with either Dear Sir/Madam, > Yours faithfully, or Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms Smith, > Yours sincerely, Bill White.

All formal letters begin with the reason for writing -e.g. I am writing to request... / inform you…/ complain about…/ apologise for... / apply for…/ I am writing in reply to your article…/ in response to the column… etc. In addition, you can include one or more of the following:

• who you are - e g I am writing on behalf of my English class…

• a reference to something you have seen or read -e.g. I am writing in response to your article in last Tuesday's issue of Education News.

• details of place, time, people spoken to, etc, e.g. … while I was attending the seminars for students on 4th May.

Some other formal phrases you are expected to use:

The principal reason for this is…, / I would like to take issue with your comments about…, / we find it difficult to believe…, / to express my disagreement…, / I am entitled to inform you…, / to voice my concern about…, / with regard to…, / you are entirely correct to point out that…, etc

Depending on the reason for writing, letters can end with one or more of the following:

• A summary of the main body

• A reiteration of the reason for writing

• A reassurance

• A reference to future action

• An expression of gratitude