Грамматика. Практикум
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I never heard such nonsense!
Note 2: The Past Indefinite is used if reference is made to happenings which are definite in the mind of the speaker, i.e. either because the situation has already been mentioned or because the situation is known to the hearer.
Did you sleep well?
Did you enjoy the book?
What did you say?
I didn't understand (hear) your questions.
Did you see the accident?
Note 3: The Past Indefinite is always used with «when» and «where», as for other special questions both forms may be used depending on the meaning to be conveyed, though the Past Indefinite is more common.
When did you buy this book?
Where did you buy this hat? (The place implies the time)
Where have I put the hat? (Where is it now?)
Note 4: A conversation about a past action often begins with a question and answer in the Present Perfect, but normally continues in the simple past, even when no time is given. This is because the action first mentioned has now become definite in the mind of the speakers.
-Where have you been?
-To the cinema.
-What did you see?
Note 4: We use the past simple to correct an incorrect belief or expectation, or to confirm a correct one.
She is just as beautiful as I imagined.
The area is far more rugged and wild than I expected.
Note 5: We normally use the Present Perfect when we are thinking about past events together with their present results. However, we prefer a past tense when we identify the person, thing or circumstances responsible for a present situation (because we are thinking about the past cause, not the present result). Compare:
Look what John’s given me! (thinking about the gift)
Who gave you that? (thinking about the past action of giving)
Why are you crying? – Granny hit me.
I am glad you were born.
How did you get that bruise?
That’s a nice picture. Did you paint it yourself?
Note 6: Mind the difference:
She has gone to Spain. = She is there now or on her way there.
She has been to Spain. = She has come back from Spain.
She has been in Spain for two weeks. = She is still in Spain.
VI. The Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect as Variants
Past Indefinite and Present Perfect are used with little or no difference in the following cases:
The Past Indefinite The Present Perfect
1) in adverbial clauses of time which are introduced by ''since'', the principal clause is represented by such structures as ''it's many years/a long time/ ages, etc.''
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It is |
two months since Tom smoked a |
It is two months since Tom has smoked a |
cigarette. = |
He last smoked a cigarette twocigarette. = He hasn't smoked a cigarette for two |
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months ago. |
months. |
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2) in attributive clauses whose antecedent is a noun modified by a superlative and whose predicate denotes an action, continuing up to the moment of speaking (''ever'' is often used in such cases)
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I think you are the nicest man I ever |
She is the most honest person I think I've ever |
met. |
met. |
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3) with the verb ''to come'' when it is followed by an infinitive of purpose and when the sentence represents direct speech.
I came to tell you that ... 
I have come to have a talk...
The Present Perfect Continuous
I. The Formation
The Present Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Present Perfect Tense of the auxiliary verb 'to be' and Participle I of the notional verb.
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He has been working. |
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He has not been working. |
Has he been working?
II. The Use of the Present Perfect Continuous
1) The Present Perfect Inclusive denotes an action which began in the past and continued into the present and is still going on.
I have been writing since I came.
What have you been doing since I have been away?
2) The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive denotes an action which was in progress quite recently but it is no longer going on at the moment of speaking though its effects tell on the present situation in some way.
I am sorry. I am late. Have you been waiting long?Your eyes are red. Have you been weeping?
3) The Present Perfect Continuous is sometimes used to denote repeated actions.
I have been meeting her at the library.People have been phoning me all day.
4) The Present Perfect Continuous is used with emotional colouring to express anger, irritation, and annoyance).
Oh, my dear, I have been loving you since I saw you.
Who has been reading my business papers?
5) Sometimes it may denote a future action in adverbial clauses of time.
I will know the city well after I have been staying here for a month.
III. The Present Perfect Continuous vs. The Present Perfect
The Present Perfect Continuous is used: 
The Present Perfect Simple is used:
when it does not matter whether something haswhen the important thing is that something has been been finished or not. We are interested in thefinished. We are interested in the result of the activity activity
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I've been polishing the car. |
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I have polished the car. |
mostly for shorter, temporary actions |
andto talk about longer-lasting or permanent situations |
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situations |
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That man has been standing on |
the |
For 900 years the castle has stood on the hill |
corner all day. |
above the village. |
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I haven’t been working very |
well |
He has worked for years. |
recently. |
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for an activity which is still happening (Howfor a completed action (How much/ how many/ how
long?) |
many times?) |
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How long have you been reading this |
How many pages have you read? |
book? |
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IV. The Present Perfect Continuous and the Present Perfect as Variants
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The Present Perfect Continuous |
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The Present Perfect |
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1) with live, work, teach, feel |
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John has been living in London for a |
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John has lived in London for a long |
long time. |
time. |
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How long have you been working |
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How long have you worked here? |
here? |
2) for actions repeated over a long period of time |
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I have been collecting stamps since I |
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I have collected stamps since I was a |
was a child. |
child. |
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PAST TENSES
The past tense refers an action to the past. Therefore it is primarily the tense of narration.
The Past Indefinite Tense
I. The Formation
Regular verbs form the Past Indefinite by adding the suffix '-ed' to the Infinitive without the particle 'to'. The Past Indefinite form of the irregular verbs should be remembered.
In interrogative sentences the auxiliary verb 'to do' in the Past Indefinite is placed before the subject. The notional verb is used in the infinitive without the particle 'to'.
In negative sentences the negative particle 'not' is placed between the auxiliary verb and the notional one.
He arrived yesterday.
Did he arrive yesterday?
He did not arrive yesterday.
He came yesterday.
Did he come yesterday?
He did not come yesterday.
II. The Use
1) The Past Indefinite is used to denote completed actions in the past (the actions are cut off from the present). It is also used to denote past states or habits.
Shakespeare wrote “Romeo and Juliet”.
Yesterday I got a good mark in Literature.
She was deeply in love with him 10 years ago.
Kitchens were small 300 years ago.
Note 1: The action may be momentary (a single action completed in the past) or prolonged (occupying a whole period of time now over).
I only met her six months ago (a single action).
I slept eight hours yesterday (a prolonged action within a period of time now terminated).
We quarrelled for three days.
Note 2: The time of the action may be indicated by adverbials of past time (yesterday, a week ago, last year, the other day), may be implied in the situation through the mention of the place or other attending circumstances. Sometimes reference is made to a particular action which is definite in the mind of the speaker and the hearer (without mentioning the time or the place of the action). Sometimes the time becomes definite as a result of a question and answer in the Present Perfect.
I was in Bath in 1990.
I ate turnips in Germany.
He built the palace for Lord Henry.
Did you like the bride? (You saw her at the wedding).
Where have you been? - I have been to the opera. - Did you enjoy it?
Pussy cat, pussy cat, where have you been?
I’ve been up to London to look at the Queen.
Pussy cat, pussy cat, what did you there?
I frighten’d a little mouse under the chair.
2) The Past Indefinite is used to denote a succession of past actions, repeated actions or habitual actions in the past. They may be either single completed actions or actions of some duration occupying a whole period of time. Sometimes the actions follow immediately after each other, or one action causes a result.
She looked at him for a long time and then shrugged.
We marched all night and all day.
My brother applied for a visa 6 times before he got one.
Silverman ran to the car, jumped in and raced off into the night.
You often mentioned her in your letters.
3) The Past Indefinite is used to denote an action going on at the past moment with statal verbs and certain durative verbs (sit, stand, lie, hang, shine, gleam, talk, speak, wear, carry, walk and some others). In such cases the attention is focused not on its progress but it is the fact as such or the manner in which the action is presented that matters.
He talked with deep emotion.
The full moon shone down on the lightless blind-faced street.
Note 4: When we speak of inanimate things the Past Indefinite is the norm with the verbs mentioned above.
On the table lay three rows of cards face upwards.
4)The Past Indefinite is used to denote future actions viewed from the past. It occurs:
a)in clauses of time, condition and concession:
Probably, she knew that, whatever happened, he would not give her away.
b)when we describe official plans, schedules, programes, etc. viewed from the past:
He told me that he started for London in a week's time.
III. 'used to + infinitive', 'would + infinitive'
In English there are special means of expressing the idea of recurrent or permanent actions in the past.
'would + infinitive' expresses the idea of a past custom. It is typical only of literary style. It is found only in past time contexts and serves to express only recurrent actions.
He would often wake up screaming on the night.
Almost every day he would come to my place to have a talk.
'used to + infinitive' expresses the idea of a past action or state and implies contrast between the past and the present – what was typical in the past is no longer true at present.
I used to be sentimental.
It used to be my playground. There used to be an old oak in the yard.
Note 1: Two negative forms and two interrogative forms are possible with 'used to'.
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She didn't use to do... |
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Did she use to do ... |
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She didn't use to do... |
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Did she used to do ... |
The Past Continuous Tense
I. The Formation
The Past Continuous is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb ''to be'' and Participle I of the notional verb.
In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle 'not' is placed after the auxiliary verb.
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I was reading. |
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I was not reading. |
Were you reading?
II. The Use
1) The Past Continuous is used to denote an action going on at a definite moment in the past. We do not mention when the action started or finished. The moment of time may be indicated either by another past action expressed by a verb in the Past Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase. The definite moment is often not expressed directly. It may be shown by the previous context or understood from the situation. And if there are two or more actions in progress at the same time in the past we use the Past Continuous with them all:
At midnight he was still working.
He did not notice what was going on around him, he was reading.She was talking on her mobile phone while she was driving to work.
2) We use the Past Continuous for an action which was in progress when another action interrupted it. We use the Past Continuous for the action in progress (longer action) and the Past Simple for the action which interrupted it (shorter action).
He was walking down the street when he ran into an old friend.
3) We use the Past Continuous to describe the atmosphere, setting, etc. in the introduction to a story (background events) before we describe the main events.
One beautiful autumn afternoon Ben was strolling down a quiet country lane. The birds were singing and the leaves were rustling in the breeze.
Note 1: Because we often use the Past Continuous to talk about something that is a “background”, not the main “news”, we can make something seem less important by using this tense. Compare:
I had lunch with the President yesterday. (important piece of news)
I was having lunch with the President yesterday, and she said... (as if there was nothing special for the speaker about lunching with the President).
Note 2: The Past Continuous is quite often used with verbs of saying: this gives more relative importance to the following verb – to what is said:
John was saying that he still can’t find a job.
4) The Past Continuous is used to denote temporary actions in the past:
He was staying at the hotel.
During my training I was earning less than my wife.
He knew he was being rude but he could not stop.
Note 1: The Past Continuous is often used with such phrases as the whole day, the whole month, all day long, from ...
till... It can be applied only to a single action which is not part of a succession of actions.
They were working all day long.
5)The Past Continuous is used to denote developing or changing actions in the past.
Her symptoms were becoming more pronounced each day.
6)The Past Continuous is used for actions characterizing certain persons in the past. In such sentences the adverbials always, ever, constantly are used. Such sentences are emotionally coloured.
That means that the actions happened repeatedly and unexpectedly or in an unplanned and unpleasant way.
He was constantly losing things.
Aunt Lucy was always turning up without warning and bringing us presents.
I didn’t like him – he was continually borrowing money.
7) We can make requests, suggestions and questions more tentative and polite by using the Past
Continuous. We often use the verbs think and wonder:
We were wondering if you would like to join us. (=Would you like to join us?)
Were you planning on going somewhere else later? (=Are you planning on ...?)
8) The Past Continuous is used for future actions viewed from the past:
a) to denote past arrangements, usually with verbs of motion. The arranged event may or may not have taken place:
He said he was travelling in a week.
Note 1: If no future reference of the action is evident it implies that though the action was planned, it was not and will not be carried out.
I said quickly, '' She was coming to tea yesterday afternoon''.
b)in adverbial clauses of time and condition often after the conjunction while.
He said he would stay in the car while I was talking with the nurse.
III. The Past Continuous vs. the Past Indefinite
The Past Continuous cannot denote a succession of past actions and thus is unable to develop a narrative. The sphere of the Past Continuous is description while the sphere of the Past Indefinite is narration.
The Past Perfect Tense
I. The Formation
The past Perfect Tense is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb ''to have'' and Participle II of the notional verb.
In interrogative sentences the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In negative sentences the negative particle ''not'' is placed after the auxiliary verb.
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He had worked. |
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He had not worked. |
Had he worked?
II. The Use
1) The Past Perfect is used to denote an action completed before a certain moment in the past, i.e. the beginning and the end of this action precede that moment (Past Perfect Exclusive). The past moment from which the completed action is viewed may be indicated:
a)by means of an adverbial expression by 4 o'clock, by that time, by the end of the week;By that time the sun had set.
b)By another action in the past tense;
When she awoke the rain had stopped.
c)By the situation.
I opened the window. The rain had stopped.
Note 1: Sometimes the Past Perfect does not denote priority but only the completion of the action.
He knew the poem by heart when he had heard it several times.
2) The Past Perfect is used to denote an action which began before a given past moment and continued into it (Past Perfect Inclusive). The starting point of the action is indicated by since and the whole period of duration is usually indicated by the preposition for.
She told me that she had been ill since she came back from the seaside.
She told me she had been ill for three weeks.
3) The Past Perfect is used after the conjunctions hardly... when, scarcely ... when, no sooner...
than...
They had no sooner arrived than a heavy rain started.
No sooner had they arrived than a heavy rain started.
He had scarcely gone to bed when he fell asleep.
4) The Past Perfect denotes a succession of past actions belonging to the time preceding the narrative as a whole, thus describing a succession of events in the pre-past, though in this case the Past Perfect may be used for the first action alone.
Alice was selecting a book from the shelves. When she had first come to the place there had been few books there. To these she had added (added) many volumes of poetry, novels and a couple of encyclopaedias.
5) We use the Past Perfect with the verbs such as hope, expect, want, plan, think about, wish to describe past intentions which were unfulfilled. Had is usually stressed in this case:
They had hoped to get to the summit but Travers fell ill at the base camp.I had hoped we would leave tomorrow, but is won’t be possible.
He had intended to make a cake, but he ran out of time.
6) The Past Perfect is used in adverbial clauses of time to express a future action viewed from the past. It shows that the action of the subordinate clause will be completed before the action of the principal clause which is usually expressed by the Future-in-the-Past.
He promised to ring me up when he had got a definite answer.
III. The Past Perfect vs. The Past Indefinite
The Past Perfect The Past Indefinite
In adverbial clauses introduced by before and after both tenses can be used owing to the lexical meaning of these conjunctions:
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After he had left the house |
he |
After he left the house he recollected |
recollected that he had not locked the door. |
that he had not locked the door. |
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The Past Perfect is used to stress |
thePast |
Indefinite is often used with such |
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completion of actions. |
terminative verbs as arrive, enter, look in, open, |
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etc. when two actions closely follow each other. |
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I noticed that somebody was sitting at |
When I entered the room I noticed that |
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the table only when I had entered the room somebody was sitting at the table |
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(but not when I was in the doorway). |
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He closed the window, sat down in the |
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He had closed the window and |
wasarmchair and began reading his newspaper. |
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sitting in his armchair, reading a newspaper.
The Past Perfect Continuous
I. The Formation
The Past Perfect Continuous is formed analytically by means of the auxiliary verb ''to be'' in the Past Perfect and Participle I of the notional verb.
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He had been speaking. |
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He had not been speaking. |
Had he been speaking?
II. The Use:
1)We use the Past Perfect Continuous to talk about actions or situations which had continued up to the past moment that we are thinking about, or shortly before it:
At that time we had been living in the caravan for about six months.When I found Mary, I could see that she had been crying.
I went to the doctor because I had been sleeping badly.
2)We use this tense when we want to focus on duration, to say how long something had been
happening up to a past moment:
We’d been walking since sunrise, and we were hungry.
When she arrived, she had been travelling for twenty hours.
III. The Past Perfect Inclusive vs. the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive
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The Past Perfect |
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The Past Perfect Continuous |
is used with stative verbs; |
is used with actional verbs; |
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He suddenly understood that he had |
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He suddenly understood that he had |
loved her all her life. |
been going the wrong way. |
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lays the stress on the mere action (if used with |
lays the stress on the duration of the action; |
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non-terminative verbs); |
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She said she had been teaching children |
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She said that she had taught English for for 20 years. |
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20 years. |
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is used in negative sentences. |
is used in positive statements. |
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The land was dry. It hadn't rained for |
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There were puddles everywhere. It had |
weeks. |
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been raining for three days. |
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FUTURE TENSES
All future tenses refer the action they denote to the future. In English there several forms which express future events, and which one the users select depends on how they see the event, if the event is certain or near to the present.
The Future Indefinite
I. The Formation
The Future Indefinite is formed by means of the auxiliary verb ''shall'' for the first person singular and the plural or the auxiliary verb ''will'' for all the persons and the notional verb in the infinitive without the particle ''to''.
You will speak to him.
Will you speak to him?
You will not (won't) speak to him.
II. The Use
1) The Future Indefinite is used to denote predictions, often with I believe, expect, think, doubt, am sure, know, wonder etc. or accompanied by adverbs such as perhaps, probably, surely, etc. Such predictions which are based on guesswork, analysis or judgment:
We will still be here in twenty years.
I think it will be a difficult game.
Maybe, we will visit them next year.
I think we will go to Moscow in summer.
Tomorrow’s weather will be cold and cloudy.
Perhaps I’ll change my mind after I have spoken to my wife.
In twenty years’ time, the average employee will work a twenty-five hour week. (=a prophetic statement)
Note 1: After I hope, we generally use the present.
I hope he wins the game.
2)The Future Indefinite is used to denote a succession of future actions.
I shall wait in the next room and then come back.
3)The Future Indefinite is used to denote statements of fact about the future, often future habitual actions:
Next week I will be 25.
The sun will rise at 5.30 tomorrow morning.
Christmas day will fall on Tuesday this year.
Spring will soon come.
4) The Future Indefinite is used to express on-the-spot decisions (decisions made at the moment of speaking).
I will buy the blue jumper and not the yellow one.
You look tired. I will cook tonight.
Note 1: Note that if after the decision the speaker mentions the action again, he will not use will, but be going to or the present continuous.
BILL (to waiter): I will have a steak, please.
Imagine that a friend, Tom, joins Bill before his food has arrived.
TOM: What are you having/going to have? BILL: I am having/going to have a steak.
5)The Future Indefinite is used in sentences containing clauses of condition and time:
If I drop this glass it will break.
When it gets warmer, the snow will start to melt.
6)The Future Indefinite is used in newspapers and news broadcasts for formal announcements of future plans and for weather forecasts. In conversations such statements would normally be expressed by the present continuous or be going to form or, for plans only, by the present continuous:
NEWSPAPER: The President will open the new heliport tomorrow.
But the average speaker will say:
The President is going to open/is opening….
III. ''Will'' as a modal verb
There is a tendency to regard will and shall as modal verbs in English Grammar. The modal will denotes:
a) predictions that refer to the present or past. This “prediction” meaning may sometimes be broadened still further to include general or habitual predictions. In many general statements “habitual predictions” come to have the force of “typical or characteristic behaviour”. ;
That will be electrician - I’m expecting him to call about some rewiring. (on hearing the doorbell ring)
If litmus paper is dipped in acid, it will turn red.
A lion will attack a human being only when hungry.
Truth will out.
Boys will be boys.
The auditorium will seat 500.
b)volitions, will or wish of the speaker, his/her promises, threats or warnings;
Will you sign these papers? (request)Will you please open the door for me?Father won't let me go. (refusal)
If you will fill in the form I will see to your accommodations.He will go swimming in dangerous waters.
I will go to the dance! You can’t stop me!
c)in questions to denote request, offer, order, invitation:
Will you come this way, please?
Will you say it again?
d) in negations to denote impossibility as refusal (animate subject), rejection, failure to perform the immediate function (inanimate object):
I will never speak to you again.
The car won’t start.
IV. ''Shall'' as a modal verb
The modal shall denotes:
a) confident expectations with I or we;
We shall leave New York on September 4.
b)suggestions, offers and invitations, request and advice in the interrogative with I or we;
Shall we wait for James?Shall we dance?
What shall I answer him, Tom?
c)commands, rules or regulations in legal or quasi-legal documents. Here shall could be replaced
by must (=obligation);
All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress (the US Constitution).
A player who bids incorrectly shall forfeit fifty points. (rules of a card game)
The hood shall be of scarlet cloth, with silk lining of the colour of the faculty. (rules for academic dress)
They shall of course invite their in-laws.
d) promises, threats, determination, warnings or favours granted (used in reference to pets or young children).
I give you my word: the work shall be done in time.
I shall inform you if the situation changes.
We shall succeed where others have failed.
Good dog, you shall have a bone when we get home.
She shall be rewarded if she is patient.
No one will escape.
You mind my word he shall do what he has promised to.
The Future Continuous
I. The Formation
The Future Continuous is formed by means of the Future Indefinite of the Auxiliary verb ''to be'' and Participle I of the notional verb.
He will be reading.
Will he be reading?
He will not be reading.
II. The Use
1)The Future Continuous is used to denote an action which will be going on at a definite moment in the future.
This time tomorrow I will be flying to Bucharest.
I will still be working when you return.
2)The Future Continuous is used to make predictions about something we believe to be the case now:
You can’t interrupt her now. She’ll be getting ready to go on stage, won’t she?
3)The Future Continuous is used to denote actions which will definitely happen in the future as the result of a previous arrangement. As the future event is seen as arranged, we use the tense as a tactful way of asking about someone’s plans or refusing an invitation:
I can't go with you. I will be helping my mum.
How about joining us at the cottage this Sunday? – Oh, we can’t. We’ll be coming back from Edinburgh on Sunday.