Грамматика. Практикум

9)Note the structures here comes ... and there goes... :Here comes your husband!

There goes our bus – we’ll have to wait for the next one.

10)Some fixed phrases that are used in letter-writing can be expressed either in the Present

Indefinite (more formal) or in the Present Continuous (less formal).

We write to advise you... (Less formal: We are writing to let you know...)

I enclose my cheque for £200. (Less formal: I am enclosing...)

I look forward to hearing from you... (Less formal: I’m looking forward to hearing....)

The Present Indefinite is used to denote future actions

1) In subordinate clauses of time, condition and concession after the conjunctions when, while, till, until, before, after, as soon as, as long as, once (time), if, unless, on condition (that), provided, in case (condition), even if, even though, no matter how, whenever, whatever, however (concession), etc.

We will start as soon as she is ready.

Send for me, in case she feels worse.

I'll have dinner whenever it is ready.

Note 1: In object clause after 'to see' (in the meaning of 'to understand'), 'to take care' and 'to make sure' the Present Indefinite is used to speak about future actions.

I'll see that the lady is properly looked after.

Her husband will make sure no harm comes to her.

He will take care that no one interferes with them.

Note 2: The conjunctions 'if' and 'when' can introduce object clauses, then any future tense according to the sense is possible.

I wonder if/when it will stop raining.

2) The Present Indefinite may be used to indicate a future action which is certain to take place according to a timetable, program, schedule, command or arrangement worked out for a person officially (a plan or arrangement regarded as unalterable). In this case the sentence usually contains an indication of the future time.

We start for Istanbul tonight.

His train arrives at 11.46.

I start my new job tomorrow.

3)The use of the Present Indefinite with reference to the immediate future is structurally dependent in some special questions. In such questions one asks after the will of the person addressed. Thus the tense has a modal colouring.

What do we do next?

What do I say when I come in?

Where do we go now?

4) In suggestions with Why don’t you...?

Why don’t you take a day off tomorrow?

5) In descriptions of travel arrangements:

On day three we visit Stratford-upon-Avon.

We leave London at 10.00 next Tuesday and arrive in Paris at 13.00. We spend two hours in Paris and leave again at 15.00. We arrive in Rome at 19.30, spend four hours in Rome, etc.

The Present Indefinite is used to denote past actions:

1) In newspaper headlines, cartoons captions, chapter headings (perhaps because of its brevity and dramatic vividness):

Peace Talks Fail

Mass Murderer Escapes

2) In an informal style to describe a succession of past events (the historic present). Past events are portrayed or imagined as if they were going on at the present time, so we give the description greater reality. Mind that in such stories the present continuous is used for “background” – things that are already happening when the story starts, or that continue through the story.

She arrives home full of life and spirit, and about a quarter of an hour later she sits down in a chair, gasps a bit and dies.

There’s this Scotsman, you see, and he’s walking through the jungle when he meets a gorilla. And the gorilla’s eating a snake sandwich. So the Scotsman goes up to the gorilla...

So I open the door, and I look out into the garden, and I see this man. He’s wearing pyjamas and a policeman’s helmet. “Hello,” he says...

3) The Present Indefinite is common in summaries of plays, stories, etc.

In Act I, Hamlet sees the ghost of his father. The ghost tells him ....

Chapter 2: Henry goes to Scotland and meets the Lock Ness Monster.

May 1945: The war in Europe comes to an end.

4) More commonly, we report past events when using verbs of communication in the present to imply that what was said or heard still applies (often with the meaning of the Present Perfect) in the expressions I forget, I hear, I am told, I learn, I see, I understand. The Present Indefinite is used with a perfect or past meaning in introductory expressions like I hear, I see, I understand, I gather, etc.

I hear you are getting married. (=I have heard)

I am told she returned from France last week.

I see there’s been trouble down at the factory.

I hear you've come a long way.

The Present Continuous (Progressive)

I. The Formation.

The Present Continuous is formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb 'to be' and Participle I of the notional verb. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. In the negative form the negative particle ''not' is placed after the auxiliary verb.

III. The Use of Present Continuous.

1) The Present Continuous is used to denote actions going on at the moment of speaking.

Look! Uncle Tom is dancing.

You are being rude.

My dear, you are talking nonsense.

Note 1: There are a number of verbs in English that cannot be used in the continuous forms. We use the Present Indefinite in such sentences.

Note 2: The Present Indefinite not the Present Continuous is used to denote actions which though going on at the moment of speaking are important as simple facts rather than as actions in progress.

Why don't you answer?

Why don't you listen?

Why don't you write? Where is your pen?

Note 3: If two simultaneous actions are in progress at the moment of speaking but only one of them is of importance from the point of view of the speaker, this one takes the form of the present Continuous, while the other is in the Present Indefinite. This is often the case in radio, television, etc.

I stand here; the boys and girls smiling happily are moving towards the gates.

Note 4: When there are two actions one of which is in progress and the other is a habitual one, the first is expressed by the Present Continuous and the second by the resent Indefinite.

I never talk while I am working.

Note 5: We can use the Present Continuous with the Present Indefinite to give more immediacy to a past narrative. We use the continuous for actions which form a background, i.e. they started before the actions within the narrative.

There’s an old woman with thick glasses who’s serving the hot drinks, so I go up to her and ask.... (She started serving before the action of the narrative).

Note 6: When a continuous is used to refer to a short momentary action, it often suggests repetition.

Why are you jumping up and down?

The door was banging in the wind.

Note 7: Continuous forms can make requests, questions and statements less direct. They sound less definite than simple forms, because they suggest something temporary and incomplete.

I am hoping you can lend me £10. (less definite than I hope...)

I’m looking forward to seeing you again.

2) The Present Continuous is used to denote temporary actions or situations that are going on now or “around now”: before, during and after the moment of speaking. Common adverbs with this form are: now, just, still and at the moment.

How is Dartie behaving now?

What are you reading now?

I’ll be with you in a minute. I’m just finishing something in the kitchen.

We are studying the writings of Günter Grass on the German course now.

She’s staying in the Waldorf Astoria on this visit to New York, isn’t she?

I am working in my father's restaurant this month.

I’m feeding my neighbour’s cat this week while she’s in hospital.

3)The Present Continuous is used to describe changing or developing situations or trends.

The new company is growing steadily.It is getting dark.

More and more forests are disappearing because of fires.I am beginning to realize how difficult it is to be a teacher.

4)The Present Continuous is used to express a continual process referring to all or any time. In this

case the adverbs always, constantly, ever are used.

The sun is ever shining.

The earth is always moving.

The Volga is for ever pouring its waters into the Caspian Sea.

5) The Present Continuous is used to describe annoying or surprising habits. In this case the adverbs always, constantly, ever are used. There is an element of exaggeration in such sentences as the structure is used to talk about things which happen very often (perhaps more often than expected),

and which are unexpected or unplanned.

She is always grumbling.

They are always holding hands even after fifty years of marriage.

The neighbours are forever slamming doors and shouting during the night.

Granny’s nice. She’s always giving people little presents.

I’m always meeting Mr Bailiff in the supermarket. (accidental, unplanned meetings)

6) The Present Continuous is used in sports commentaries, when the action is in progress throughout the time of speaking. Usually it is used to describe “leisurely sports”, such as rowing, cricket, golf. This is not surprising, since in such sports it is more difficult to see the stages of the match or contest as having no duration.

Oxford are rowing well.

Morris is running up to bowl.

The Present Continuous is used to denote future actions

1) The Present Continuous is used to express arrangements in the near future (the time of action must be mentioned):

What are you doing tonight?

I am leaving tomorrow.

She’s getting married this spring.

We’re having fish for dinner.

2) The Present Continuous is used to denote a future action in progress in adverbial clauses of time and condition.

If he is smoking when I am absent I’ll punish him.

I’ll ring you up at 2, while you’re having your break.

If he’s working when I come, don’t bother him, I’ll wait.

IV. Verbs Not Used in the Continuous Forms.

All verbs in English are classified as either stative or action verbs (also referred to as 'dynamic verbs'). Action verbs describe actions we take (things we do) or things that happen. Stative verbs refer to the way things 'are' - their appearance, state of being, smell, etc. The most important difference between stative and action verbs is that action verbs can be used in continuous tenses and stative verbs can not be used in continuous tenses.

(=contain), keep(=continue), matter, measure, resemble, stand for, weigh, allow, astonish, claim, fail to do, find, forbid, forgive, manage to do, need, prevent, puzzle, resemble, result, require, satisfy, signify, feel, succeed, suit, surprise

Note 1: A stative verb may be used in the Present Continuous without a basic change in the meaning. This expresses great intensity of feeling. This use is rare and can be found only in highly emotional context.

Don't shout! I am hearing you quite well.

Are you still remaining my friend?

Note 2: The division of verbs into those which admit of the Continuous form and those which do not admit of it is purely traditional. The Continuous tenses are chiefly used for deliberate actions. Those which mean involuntary actions are used in simple tenses. Can is often used with see, hear, feel, taste, smell, understand and remember to give a kind of continuous meaning.

He is listening to the radio. I hear nothing.

I can see Sue coming down the road.

Can you smell something burning?

Note 3: Occasionally “non-continuous” verbs are used in continuous forms in order to emphasize the idea of change or development (a gradual change in the quality or intensity of the idea expressed by the verb).

These days, more and more people prefer/are preferring to take early retirement.

The water tastes/is tasting better today.

As I get older, I remember/am remembering less and less.

I am liking it here more and more as the time goes by.

I am loving this music.

A verb can have several meanings only one of which makes it a stative verb. In other meanings such a verb may be freely used in the Present Continuous.

Note 1: The verbs look (when we refer to a person’s appearance), feel (=experience a particular emotion), hurt and ache can be used in either the continuous or the simple tenses with no difference in meaning.

Note 2: The verb enjoy can be used in continuous tenses to express specific preference.

I’m enjoying the party a lot.

I enjoy going to parties.

V. The Present Continuous vs. The Present Indefinite.

The Present Continuous is used to denote: The Present Indefinite is used to denote: something that is happening at or around the time things in general or things that happen repeatedly;

The Present Perfect Simple

I. The Formation

All the forms of the Present Perfect are analytic. They are formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary ''have'' and Participle II of the notional verb.

In the interrogative form the auxiliary comes before the subject, Participle II following it.

In the negative the corresponding negative forms of ''have'' are used, Participle II following them.

I have not spoken.

II. The Use

The Present Perfect has three distinct uses.

1) The Present Perfect is used to express an action already completed before the present situation but connected with the present situation in its consequences (Present Perfect Exclusive). We can often change a present perfect sentence into a present sentence with a similar meaning.

I have torn the paper in two (=The paper is torn in two).

I have come (=I am here).

Have you read the Bible? (=Do you know the Bible?)

Note 1: The Present Perfect is frequently used with the adverbs 'just, already, yet, so far, recently, lately, ever, often, seldom, never, still, once, twice, three times'. Mind that we use already with the affirmative and yet with the negative and in questions.

Note 2: The Present Perfect is often used when the time is not mentioned either because it is unknown or unimportant.

I have milked a cow three times.

He has bought a new car!

Note 3: Depending on the context, the Present Perfect of terminative verbs may lose its resultative character. This is the case when the context shows repeated actions. We can use the Present Perfect to say that something has happened several times up to the present (we describe our life experience).

She has often opened the window and sat for hours looking out.

I’ve written six letters since lunchtime.

I’ve sometimes thought of moving to Australia.

How often have you been in love in your life?

Note 4: As the Present Perfect expresses relevance to the present, we normally use it to announce news or to introduce a new topic of conversation. After announcing news, we usually use the Past Simple to give more details.

Uncle George has crashed the car again. He ran into a tree in High Street.

Joe has passed his exam. He got 87%.

Oh, I’ve cut my finger! – How did it happen?

- Pussy Cat, Pussy Cat, where have you been?

-I have been to London to look at the Queen.

-Pussy Cat, Pussy Cat, what did you see there?

-I saw a little mouse under her chair!

Note 4: The present perfect is often used in letters.

I am sorry I haven't written before but I've been very busy lately as Tom has been away. We have carefully considered the report which you sent us on 26 April, and have decided to take the following action.

Note 5: We use the Present Perfect with other present tenses with report/comment verbs or phrases (guess, imagine, suppose, etc.). We also use it when commenting on the present result of something in the past (usually with appear, seem, sound, etc.).

I reckon Gloria’s been held up in traffic. Do you suppose they have forgotten they’re meant to be here?

He sounds as if he has run all the way here.

It seems they’ve already decided without consulting us.

2) The Present Perfect is used in adverbial clauses of time and condition to denote an action completed before the definite moment in the future. The action of the subordinate clause will be accomplished before the action of the principal clause.

I won't leave till you have answered me.

Note 1: Sometimes the Present Indefinite is found in this type of clauses in the same meaning of the verb. With durative verbs the Present Perfect is necessary. With terminative verbs the use of both forms is possible.

I can tell you everything when I have tried the machine.

Mother will stay at home until we return/have returned.

3) The Present Perfect is used for an action which lasts throughout an incomplete period, i.e. it began in the past and continued into the present (the Present Perfect Inclusive).

He has been in the army for two years. (He is still in the army)

It has been very cold lately but now it is getting warmer.

Note 1: Its use is compulsory with verbs which cannot be used in the Continuous form.

I have loved her since she was a child.

Note 2: The Present Perfect is preferred to the Present Perfect Continuous in the negative sentences.

3) 'lately', 'recently' used with the Present Perfect also indicate an incomplete period of time

(until now).

Has he been here lately/recently? (any time during the last week/month)

Note 1: 'recently' used with Past Simple means 'a short time ago'.

He left recently.

to give new information, to announce a recentto give details about some recent event announced

when we report that someone has recently inven-when we talk about something that was invented, ted, produced, discovered or written something. etc. in the more distant past.

Scientists have discovered that, all over

when the time of the action is indicated by an when the period is over or the reference is made to adverbial modifier of time denoting a perioda particular past point of time within that period; which is not yet over;

I have drunk four cups of coffee today. I wasn't very well in the morning, but I am

Has the postman come this morning?perfectly all right now.

Note 1: The Past Indefinite is used with ever and never for emotional colouring.

Did you ever hear anything like that?