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Speaking

1.Change the idea of this story and rebuild (or reorganize) it according to it.

2.Give information about inventors, inventions and dates in two different ways.

3.Find the introduction in this text. What is it about?

4.Write down your own variant of introduction to this text.

5.At home prepare your own story about “History of the car”.

6.Try to answer these questions. If it is not possible for youfind the answer in the text given below:

a.What were the earliest means of communication used by man?

b.What had men tried to replace manpower with?

c.Which of the mechanical vehicles has had the greatest influence upon our life?

d.How was the first self-propelled car operated? When was it built?

e.What did Thomas Savery invent? Who improved his invention?

f.Did James Watt want to use steam power to run a road vehicle?

g.Did all men accept his view?

МАN IN МОТION

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In his efforts to move by means of other than his own feet, man has sat on the backs of mules, camels, horses and elephants, and has been pulled by them in wagons, carriages and sleds. He has used boats on water, skis on snow, skates on ice, and bicycles on land. Of all the devices which man has invented to carry him from here to there, swiftly and effortlessly, none has had quite as such impact on his life as the automobile.

The influence of the automobile on our life has been so complete that few of us can remember what it was like to be - without one. Yet it was not so long ago that men first devised the means of mechanical self-propulsion which made the modern car possible. They had tried for hundreds of years to replace manpower with a mechanical device. None was found remarkable until late in the nineteenth century.

One of the earliest self-propelled cars was built by a clock-maker in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1649. It was operated on the same principle as a windup toy. Like a toy, it had to be rewound every few minutes. About fifty years after that, an Englishman named Thomas Sаvery developed a steam pump which raised water from coal mines. This was improved by another Englishman, Thomas Newcomen. In 1765, James Watt of Scotland, using Newcomen's engine as a model made a steam engine so efficient that he is generally considered to be its inventor. Although these early steam engines operated from a fixed position, they generated power. Watt was opposed to using steam power to run a road vehicle but these and other men with vision saw the possibility of steam, power propelling vehicles on land and water. In Europe and the United States, men began to experiment with steam. The search for an automobile although it would be years before it carried that name - was on.

7.Give a summary of this text.

8.Retell the story according to the plan given below (use the verbs in brackets):

1.The earliest means of communication (to use).

2.The first self-propelled cars (to build).

3.The principle of their operation (to device).

4.A steam-pump (to invent).

5.A steam-engine (to consider).

6.The search for an automobile (to experiment).

Discussing

1.Look through the text.

2.Compare it with the previous two (“History of the car “ and “Man in motion”).

3.Find common and distinguishing features in its

A)Titles

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B)Themes

C)Ideas

D)Structures (composition)

4.What text have you found more

A)Informative

B)Illustrative

C)Emotional

D)Complete

E)Creative

5.What should be done to improve each of these texts.

THE AUTHOR OF THE CAR

The automobile as we know it was not invented in a single day by a single inventor. The history of the automobile reflects an evolution that took place worldwide. It is estimated that over 100,000 patents created the modern automobile. However, we can point to the many firsts that occurred along the way. Starting with the first theoretical plans for a motor vehicle that had been drawn up by both Leonardo da Vinci and Isaac Newton.

In 1769, the very first self-propelled road vehicle was a military tractor invented by French engineer and mechanic, Nicolas Joseph Cugnot (1725 - 1804). Cugnot used a steam engine to power his vehicle, built under his instructions at the Paris Arsenal by mechanic Brezin. It was used by the French Army to haul artillery at a whopping speed of 2 1/2 mph on only three wheels. The vehicle had to stop every ten to fifteen minutes to build up steam power. The steam engine and boiler were separate from the rest of the vehicle and placed in the front (see engraving above). The following year (1770), Cugnot built a steam-powered tricycle that carried four passengers.

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In 1771, Cugnot drove one of his road vehicles into a stone wall, making Cugnot the first person to get into a motor vehicle accident. This was the beginning of bad luck for the inventor. After one of Cugnot's patrons died and the other was exiled, the money for Cugnot's road vehicle experiments ended.

Steam engines powered cars by burning fuel that heated water in a boiler, creating steam that expanded and pushed pistons that turned the crankshaft, which then turned the wheels. During the early history of self-propelled vehicles - both road and railroad vehicles were being developed with steam engines. (Cugnot also designed two steam locomotives with engines that never worked well.) Steam engines added so much weight to a vehicle that they proved a poor design for road vehicles; however, steam engines were very successfully used in locomotives. Historians, who accept that early steam-powered road vehicles were automobiles, feel that Nicolas Cugnot was the inventor of the first automobile.

After Cugnot Several Other Inventors Designed Steam-Powered Road Vehicles. Cugnot's vehicle was improved by Frenchman, Onesiphore Pecqueur, who also invented the first differential gear. In 1789, the first U.S. patent for a steam-powered land vehicle was granted to Oliver Evans. In 1801, Richard Trevithick built a road carriage powered by steam - the first in Great Britain.

In Britain, from 1820 to 1840, steam-powered stagecoaches were in regular service. These were later banned from public roads and Britain's railroad system developed as a result. Steam-driven road tractors (built by Charles Deitz) pulled passenger carriages around Paris and Bordeaux up to 1850. In the United States, numerous steam coaches were built from 1860 to 1880. Inventors included: Harrison Dyer, Joseph Dixon, Rufus Porter, and William T. James. Amedee Bollee Sr. built advanced steam cars from 1873 to 1883. The "La Mancelle" built in 1878, had a front-mounted engine, shaft drive to the differential, chain drive to the rear wheels, steering wheel on a vertical shaft and driver's seat behind the engine. The boiler was carried behind the passenger compartment. In 1871, Dr. J. W. Carhart, professor of physics at Wisconsin State University, and the J. I. Case Company built a working steam car that won a 200-mile race.

Steam engines were not the only engines used in early automobiles. Vehicles with electrical engines were also invented. Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the first electric carriage. Electric cars used rechargeable batteries that powered a small electric motor. The vehicles were heavy, slow, expensive, and needed to stop for recharging frequently. Both steam and electric road vehicles were abandoned in favor of gas-powered vehicles. Electricity found greater success in tramways and streetcars, where a constant supply of electricity was possible.

Learn more about the history of electrical vehicles from 1890 to the present. However, around 1900, electric land vehicles in America outsold all

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other types of cars. Then in the several years following 1900, sales of electric vehicles took a nosedive as a new type of vehicle came to dominate the consumer market. The very first self-powered road vehicles were powered by steam engines and by that definition Nicolas Joseph Cugnot of France built the first automobile in 1769 - recognized by the British Royal Automobile Club and the Automobile Club de France as being the first. So why do so many history books say that the automobile was invented by either Gottlieb Daimler or Karl Benz? It is because both Daimler and Benz invented highly successful and practical gasoline-powered vehicles that ushered in the age of modern automobiles. Daimler and Benz invented cars that looked and worked like the cars we use today. However, it is unfair to say that either man invented "the" automobile.

Language practice

1.Examine the phrases and try to translate it.

A)Put down

B)Put (stick) one's nose in

C)Put on the Ritz/dog

D)Put some distance between someone and someone / something

E)Put someone away

2.Match these phrases with the definitions given below

1)interfere in someone's business

2)put in prison

3)criticize someone

4)make everything special for someone else

5)move far away from

3.Fill in the gaps in the sentences

Jack … him …. and he hasn't been the same since. Jason was … …. for life in prison.

I wish he wouldn't … his … in where it's not wanted. They really … on … …. for us last weekend.

He … some …….. between himself and his ex-wife. Mary is ……. her …. in their affairs.

Let's … some …….. between us and the school.

4. Match the words in two columns

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Writing

1. Using phrases and word structures from section “Language practice”

describe a situation which could happen with the driver

a)Two hundred years ago

b)One hundred years ago

c)Three weeks ago.

2.Write down your own variant of the report connected with the history of automobile invention.

Unit 2.

Section A. Determining the scope of the report And Considering the target audience

Theory

A frequent mistake of many business reports is that the author makes the scope (purpose) of a report too general or vague. As most business reports are required to support specific organizational objectives, strategies and decision making it is critical that a chain of continuity in argument and evidence can be

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demonstrated between the purpose of the report, the research, and ultimately the solutions, findings or recommendations. The stronger this continuity the greater the weight the report will have in supporting the decision making process. When you chose a focus for your report, one of the first steps is to narrow the scope to a report length. The scope of the report is defined by determining the factors that will be studied.

Always consider the business reports alignment with the intended audience. Business reports usually have a number of different audience groups to reach so a report will often have a hierarchical structure to support different levels of detail. Many people may be involved in a decision making process and they will have different levels of information requirements to support their decision making process. In designing the report format and style the following target audience characteristics should be considered:

Their need for the report

Educational level (ability to understand)

Position in organization

Knowledge of the report’s topic

Responsibility to make decisions based on the report

Personal demographics (age, biases, alliances, attitudes)

To avoid making false assumptions about the target audience the author should compile a list of all the intended readers and develop a profile of them. Audiences are basically of three kinds:

Primary Audience - people who have to make decisions on the basis of the business report;

Secondary Audience - people who are effected by the actions the Primary Audience would take in response to the position of the business report;

Immediate Audience - people responsible for examining the business report, weighting its viability and distributing the report to a broader audience.

In determining if a number of versions of reports are required with varying levels of evidence, the author should consider the following audience decision making needs:

How much background (supporting factual data, analytical findings, solutions and recommendations) will the audience need?

Do they need to define any terms being used within the report (if so ensure they are included in Explanation Terms or Glossary)?

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What language level (technical complexity) will be most appropriate for the target audience?

What will the target audiences expect from the business report?

Does the reader prefer everything given in detail or merely a brief presentation that touches upon the highlights?

Questions:

1.What is the most frequent mistake in business report?

2.What should business report support?

3.What strategy should we avoid making business report?

4.What is the first step after determining the focus of the business report?

5.How is the scope of the report defined?

6.What should be considered in designing of the report format and style?

7.What types of audience do you know? What is the difference between them?

Section B. Famous Inventors

Reading

1.Read the text and define

a)The theme of the report

b)The idea of the report (the aim)

c)The scope of the report

d)Primary, secondary and immediate audience

e)Style of the report

2.Give another variants of the aim of the report with the theme “Leonardo da Vinci”

3.Choose one and describe the scope of your report according to your aim.

4.Write down a plan of your report.

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Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo da Vinci was a Renaissance man. He painted, sculpted, dissected bodies, designed buildings...he pursued knowledge and self enlightenment in a multitude of ways. This short biography provides a brief overview of his life and main contributions. Leonardo da Vinci was born April 15, 1452 in Anchiano, near Vinci, Italy, and died May 2, 1519 in Cloux, France. His father, Ser Piero, was a respected Florentine businessman. His mother, Caterina,was a peasant women. Ser Piero's parents did not consider Caterina a worthy catch, so Ser Piero and Caterina remained unmarried. Caterina later married someone of her own station.

The kindly Ser Piero treated Leonardo as a legitimate son. But, although Ser Pieroprovided Leonardo with an excellent education, Leonardo did not reveal outstanding abilities as a child.

At the age of fifteen, Leonardo da Vinci was apprenticed to the artist Andrea del Verrocchio in Florence. Leonardo worked there for fourteen years. Many pen and pencil works remain from this period, including technical sketches of pumps, weapons, and other mechanical objects. Leonardo started to get good commissions, including the Adoration of the Magi for the monastery of San Donato a Scopeto. But this, and other commissions, were left unfinished when he moved to Milan.

At the age of thirty, Leonardo da Vinci moved to Milan to work for Duke Ludovico. He spent seventeen years there, until Ludovico fell from power in 1499. Leonardo acted as a technical advisor to Ludovico in fields as diverse as architecture, weaponry, hydraulics and engineering. But Leonardo's goals at this time tended to be grandiose and boundless, and much work remained unfinished.

Fortunately for us, Leonardo managed to complete The Last Supper for the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie, and the The Virgin of the Rocks for the Milanese Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception. But the twelve years Leonardo devoted to creating a monumental bronze statue of a horse were less successful. He created the clay model for the horse, but just before the bronze was to be poured it was diverted to making war cannons. Then Ludovico fell, and the clay model was destroyed in the ensuing war. With the French marching

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into Milan, Leonardo celebrated the new century by returning home. In January 1500 he left Milan, spent a few months in Mantua and Venice, and then returned to the scene of his apprentice years, Florence.

In Florence, Leonardo da Vinci concentrated on mathematical studies before, after two years, taking a ten month break to work for Cesare Borgia. There he invented new cartographic techniques while mapping Borgia’s territories. He also met Nicholas Machiavelli, no doubt picking up some good tips for dealing with high officials!

During this second period in Florence, Leonardo worked on many grand projects. These included plans for a canal to the sea, and a monumental mural in the central square. But the canal remained only a plan, and the mural was never completed. He did, however, complete the Mona Lisa during this time.

Also during this second period in Florence, Leonardo da Vinci became especially interested in science, his main impetus being simply to see what was there. His genius enabled him to look deeply into nature-- his artistic vision became a superb tool for detailed scientific investigation.

Art and science combined in his investigations of the human form, which (like everything else he did) was pursued to its limits. He performed dissections in the hospital of Santa Maria Nuova, and provided a comprehensive account of the structure and function of the human body. Leonardo studied various other natural phenomena, from the flight of birds to the movements of currents, and created vast collections of data pertaining to them.

King Louis XII of France greatly admired Leonardo da Vinci. After requests from Charles d'Amboise, the French governor in Milan, Leonardo returned to Milan in 1508. Leonardo's advice was sought mainly on architectural matters, but his own interests centred on science. His experiments in anatomy proceeded quickly with the collaboration of Marcantonio della Torre, an anatomist from Pavia. Leonardo also continued with botanical, mathematical, optical, mechanical, and geological studies. Leonardo became convinced that basic mechanical forces produced all organic and inorganic forms, and that they operated in accordance with orderly, harmonious laws. So Leonardo was one of the first to outline a fully scientific vision of nature and the physical universe.

In 1513 the French were forced to leave Milan, and Leonardo da Vinci moved to Rome. He hoped to find employment through his patron Giuliano de Medici, brother of the pope. Giuliano gave Leonardo rooms in his residence, the Belvedere in the Vatican, and a considerable monthly wage. But the competition was fierce. Donato Bramante was building St. Peter's; Rome was full of young talent. Leonardo could get no commissions and stuck to mathematical studies, experiments, and investigating Rome’s monuments. Feeling underemployed, in 1516, Leonardo accepted the invitation of King Francis I to serve in France and left Italy forever.

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