22. Semantic aspects of interpretation

Messages, both written and oral, have certain semantic structure, the main element of which is the proposition, i.e. a "picture" of the world, a "statement" about the world, which may be true or false, which is pronounced with a certain purpose, and which has the subject and the predicate e.g. "It is cold outside".However messages, to acquire sense must also contain components, which may be verbally expressed (explicit) or implicit:

1. the modal component: treating of the proposition by the speaker as possible, impossible, desired, unnecessary, likely and unlikely e.g. I warn you that it is probably hot outside.

2. the evaluative component: positive or negative evaluation of the elements of the proposition by the speaker (or absence of such evaluation). Evaluative components may play different roles in the semantic structure of utterances. If they are parts of the theme they may often be redundant and omitted in interpreting.

3. the pragmatic component: indicator of the aim of pronouncing the utterance as it is viewed by the speaker e.g. I warn (the act of warning) you that it is cold outside.

Semantics of oral discourse has also to do with the notions of the theme and the rheme. The theme is the “known" part

of the message while the rheme describes "what happens to the theme". Perception of the rhematic components of messages allows the interpreter to understand the meaning of the messages as well as their modality and evaluation of facts and events by the speaker.

It is obvious that for interpretation to be successful it is not enough to translate only the message but also to render all components of its structure.

23. “Text” and “discourse”

Text is any verbalised (i.e. expressed by means of human language) communicative event performed via (i.e. by means of) human language, no matter whether this communication is performed in written or in oral mode. It means that we will consider all complete units of oral verbal communication to be texts.

Discourse is a complex communicative phenomenon, which includes, besides the text itself, other factors of interaction (such as shared knowledge, communicative goals, cognitive systems of participants, their cultural competence, etc), i.e. all that is necessary for successful production and adequate interpretation (comprehension and translating/interpreting) of the text. Therefore text is embedded in discourse and both of them are "materialised" in a communicative situation, which is embedded in the macro context of interaction, i.e. cultural, social, economic political, and other contexts of the world.

24. Cohesion of texts

Cohesion is defined as one of the main properties of text whereby certain grammatical or lexical features of the sentences connect them to other sentences in the text.

Grammatical cohesion plays an important role in linking together the contents of texts by various grammatical means, such as conjunctions, prepositions, and rules of the sequences of tenses.

Lexical and semantic cohesion is implemented through repetition, which is defined as the occurrence of one or more lexical items in sentence that reinstate some elements from earlier sentences so that something new can be said about them.

There are such types of lexical repetition links in texts as

1. Simple lexical repetition occurs when a lexical item that has already occurred in the text is repeated with no greater alteration than can be explained in terms of a grammatical paradigm (e.g, singular vs. plural, active voice vs. passive voice), e.g: bear бээ — bears).

2. Co-reference repetition occurs when two items are interpreted as having the same referent e.g Тарас Шевченко - Кобзар.

3. Substitution links occur when certain grammatical words substitute lexical items, e.g.: bears бээс — they; явище - воно.

4. Complex lexical repetition occurs when two lexical items share a lexical morpheme, but are not formally identical, or when they are formally identical, but belong to different parts of speech e.g: to travel - travelling - traveler; їжа-їсти

5. Complex paraphrase occurs when one of the lexical items includes the other, although they may share no lexical morpheme. e.g., happy-sad, день-ніч.