Reading and writing techniques

Reading and writing are two skills that mirror each other and they ought to be taught in such a way as to complement each other. F. Smith

Reading and writing are two basic skills which make part and parcel of the life of our literate society. It is hard to imagine any skilled work that does not require the abilities to read and to write.

A. Types of Written Texts

There is a great variety of written texts which may be divided into two main groups, namely: − fiction and non-fiction texts.

F i c t i o n (the belles-lettres style) comprises works of imaginative literature, that is, any literary composition portraying imaginary characters and events such as a novel, a short story, a play, a poem.

The indispensable characteristics of fiction are: genuine, not trite, imagery achieved by purely linguistic devices; the use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning; a peculiar individual selection of vocabulary, which reflects to a greater or lesser degree the author’s personal evaluation of things or phenomena; the introduction of the typical features of colloquial language. The function of the belles-lettres style – aesthetico-cognitive – is to give the reader delight from the form and the understanding of the idea.

N o n – f i c t i o n texts may belong either to the scientific prose style or to the publicistic style.

The function of the s c i e n t i f i c p r o s e style (scholarly writing) is to prove the result of scientific research and to convey exact scientific information. It includes humanities, exact sciences and popular scientific prose.

The most typical feature of scholarly writing is a high degree of formality, a concern for clear presentation of material and argument, resulting in careful linking of paragraphs.

Colloquialisms are largely avoided, sentences tend to be highly varied in length and structure. There’s tendency to make use of abstract nouns formed from verbs. In less formal variety the verb would be preferred. There’s a very frequent use of adverbs which often act as sentence connectors. Passive constructions are in frequent use in scholarly writing. They contribute largely to the impersonal character of this kind of writing.

The scholar writes for other scholars, not for laymen. The scholar’s purpose is to express himself logically, clearly and precisely. Therefore he most often resorts to scientific vocabulary, terms, words of Latin and Greek origin. In the complex sentences the relations between the clauses are indicated by conjunctions. Sentence connectors show the relations between sentences within the paragraphs.

The layout of the article is also a means of expressing the content clearly. Articles generally consist of sections and subsections with headings and subheadings. Block letters, bold type, italic, spacing play an important role in scholarly writing. It is important to point out that skimming a scientific text is not the same as skimming any other text. Books on science have a different layout and follow certain techniques to make reading at all levels easier. For instance, most science textbooks use headings and subheadings to indicate many ideas and subpoints.

By studying the organization of the text and by looking for the headings of section, for boxed information, and points written in a different colour, the student can get a clear idea of the main points the text deals with. Looking at the end of a chapter for rules, conclusions or summaries also does help read at the skimming level.

The p u b l i c i s t i c s t y l e texts comprise articles in newspapers and journals, essays, feature articles, etc. The aim of most of them is not only to inform the reader but also to influence public opinion through logical argumentation and emotional appeal.

E s s a y s usually deal with their subject from a limited or personal point of view. There are different types of them, but the most complex kind and therefore the most interesting is the expository essay. This kind of essay seeks not merely or only to inform, narrate, describe but to persuade and explain, and to move. It may comprise: a) a short introduction; a quotation or aphorism bearing on the general subject may be used; b) clear statement of the writer’s point of view; general remarks followed up by particular examples or illustrations; c) clear statement of a different point of view. An argumentative section where the device of rhetorical question, answer, exclamation and so on may help; d) the result of the above argument stated and illustrated; ­

e) conclusions: aphoristic, with a quotation or else summing up the discussion.

B. What is Reading, or How to Read

Reading is necessary in a wide range of life activities. Where there is little reading, there will be little learning. Professional competence depends on one’s ability to read. Experience of reading is an essential part of education.

We must use reading lessons to develop students’ reading proficiency rather than improving linguistic competence. Teachers are to help students master the reading strategies.

The competent reader uses not only one skill, but many. The expert reader can:

a) read at an observational speed of from 400 to 600 words per minute;

b) respond to the precise meaning of familiar words and understand the meaning of unfamiliar words from the context without reference to a dictionary;

c) respond to the lexical meanings of words he reads and the relationships between them;

d) respond to more than plain sense of the words; he feels emotional implications, humour, irony;

e) see the relationship of the parts to the whole;

6. understand the author’s intention.

Those all are kinds of response. In the course of acquiring these skills the student also acquires knowledge that enables him to become even more skilful:

a) his vocabulary increases;

b) he learns something about other times, places, etc.

Teaching reading presupposes a wide use of various kinds of exercises, to help students master reading techniques. They may be: introductory exercises, reading for meaning exercises, comprehension exercises, exercises in reading to find the main idea, using the context exercises, reading faster or timed exercises, etc.

It is in the class itself, under the guidance of a trained teacher that the reading of different types of text, with different instructions should be launched.

Step 1 presupposes an accurate and comprehensive reading and understanding of the plot − if it is a piece of fiction − to be able to answer when and where something happens and who the participants are. If the text belongs to some other type of writing one should carefully read the lines and identify the topic discussed and the arguments offered in support of the message conveyed by the author.

Step 2 is very important, too. The student learns to read between the lines. Every author wished not only to demonstrate and to prove but to impress and somehow persuade the reader. Means used greatly depend on the type of written text.

As a third step one may ask the question: How well did the author succeed in what he set out to do?

Here one may compare the text discussed with the texts dealing with the same topic, with a similar system of values.

If we resort to the known classification of types of reading we’ll have to deal with, at least, such as: Intensive/Close Reading, Extensive Reading, Critical Reading, Narrow Reading; Surveying; Skimming, Scanning and some others.

I n t e n s i v e / C l o s e R e a d i n g presupposes deep and thorough reading, characterized by concentration on a special purpose, close and accurate interpretation of a text. It is usually done in class with a great degree of guidance on the part of the teacher. The teacher helps the students with a lot of reading instructions. Classroom instructions will best help the students develop efficient reading strategies: a) concentration on a passage-level semantic clues; b) formulation of hypothesis about the text before reading, then reading to confirm, refine or reject hypothesis; c) a tolerance for inexactness, a willingness to take chances and make mistakes.

Classroom work can point the way but cannot substitute the act itself: people learn to read by reading. Hence a student must do extensive reading as well.

E x t e n s i v e R e a d i n g is reading on a large scale over time. It is what the student does outside the classroom. Purposes may vary, they may be content analysis, funding relevant information, getting main ideas, overviewing main points and details, etc. It may not require understanding every word.

C r i t i c a l R e a d i n g is aimed at evaluation the manner of treatment of the theme and the way of conveying one’s considerations about the problems raised. It also presupposes a critical judgement and appreciation of all the facts, argumentations and the style of the text.

Critical reading is aimed at finding answers to questions of the following type: Do I agree with the writer? Did he manage to persuade me? How deep was his penetration into the complexities of the theme discussed?

N a r r o w R e a d i n g is reading on a single topic or reading the texts of a single author which is more efficient for second-language reading. In narrow reading the text becomes easier to comprehend after the first two pages. Readers adjust to repeated vocabulary of particular topic and/or the particular style of writer.

S u r v e y i n g is a strategy for quickly and efficiently previewing text content and organization using referencing and non-text material. Although specific strategies depend on the type of text, surveying basically involves making a quick check of the relevant extra-text categories:

Reference Data — title, author, table of contents, chapter or article summaries etc;

Graphical Data — diagrams, illustrations etc;

Typographical Data — all features that help information stand out, including typefaces, spacing, enumeration, underlining, etc.

S k i m m i n g is more text-oriented form of surveying and refers to the method of glancing through a text to extract the gist or main points. Skimming involves knowing which parts of a text contain the most important information and reading only those. More than most kinds of reading, therefore, it requires knowledge of text structure. In particular, students should be able to learn something of the text topic from the title and any subheadings; they should know that the first and the last paragraphs often contain valuable background, summarizing, or concluding information; they should be aware of the importance of topic sentences and where to find them. Eventually students should be introduced to the different functions of paragraphs (such as narrative, descriptive, defining, explanatory, etc.) in order to more effectively sense the pattern of the text and to recognize the relationship between main ideas and other information from lexical and grammatical indicators.

S c a n n i n g is a wide sweeping search for specific information rather than general impression. Scanning demands that the reader should ignore all but the search of the key item. It is a useful skill for data gathering, review, using reference books, or judging whether a text contains material deserving further study.

The reader must therefore, more than in other types of reading, fix the reading purpose clearly, perhaps formulating specific questions before systematically dealing with the text.

C. What is Interpretation, or How to Interpret Written Texts

Texts belonging to different functional styles (fiction and non-fiction) require different approach for their interpretation. Interpretation of a text is a linguistic procedure which ensures the deciphering of all the information layers of a literary work. To interpret a text is to understand the deep meaning of it, to consider it as a unity of form and meaning, to understand its impact on the reader, to extract all the manifold information.

Interpretation is a creative, highly subjective process. Its information is to discover all meanings – emotional, aesthetic, informative, re-create the author’s vision and comprehension of reality.

Works of fiction (no matter what topic or theme is dealt with) have a certain plot structure which may comprise the following elements: the exposition/the setting, the development of the theme or the conflict, the climax (the culminating point) and the denouement. It may be written as a first- or a third-person narration, there is always a certain atmosphere created in the work and the writer sends the reader a certain message. There are, also, characters (major and minor) who may be presented directly or indirectly.¹

Non-fiction texts are first defined as belonging to definite type of writing (scholarly or publicistic). Next the theme or the overall topic is stated; the traditional structure should also be commented upon (introduction, development of the theme, and conclusion). The way the main point is developed and the personal touch of the author are also worth evaluating: choice of words, terms (if any), static data, expressive and emotional elements, tropes, set expressions, clichés, emphatic structures and the purpose of their use should be explained, too.

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¹ For more detailed information refer to Borisova L.V. Interpreting Fiction. M., 1999.

Both fiction and non-fiction texts should be interpreted from the pragmatic point of view: means of reasoning, persuasion, logical or emotional presentation of author’s appeal to the reader should be assessed.

D. What is Writing or How to Write

Writing is basically a process of communicating something (content) on paper to an audience. If the writer has nothing to say, communication will not occur (Forum. 1993).

Learning to write students should go through several stages of mastering elementary mechanics of written work (handwriting, spelling, capitalization, punctuation, word order, etc.) then they approach the stage where they become independent operators answering letters, writing minutes, précis, annotation, a short story or an essay. The learner must have enough handwriting practice, there should be the widest possible range of kinds of writing: notes, summaries, commentaries, descriptions, arguments, magazine articles, reports, etc. In general one should know how to paraphrase, compress the information gained and to expand on it.

Paraphrasing is the art of expressing the meaning of a passage of prose so as to make it clear. This means that the expression must be s i m p l e r than in the original. Simplicity and clarity are largely gained by splitting up long words into shorter words, and then arranging the whole sentence or paragraph in another order.

Paraphrasing is valuable in training students to express themselves simply and clearly. It shows the teacher whether or not students have understood what they are reading. “Paraphrasing, in its proper use is not reporting, it is exploration.” Paraphrasing can, thus, become a training in intelligence, appreciation and humility instead of a dull mechanical exercise. Again, paraphrasing may be an exercise in good style, which in English means a simple style.

Metaphors, similes, personifications should be cut out or turned into ordinary statement. Exclamations should also be reduced to simple statements. This is best done by throwing the whole passage into the past tense and the third person, though there are cases (such as pieces of expository prose) where the past tense is inappropriate.

Précis is a training in style and in understanding of wider significance. A good précis is a pointer to a good brain.

The essence of précis is the principle of economy. We are presented with a lengthy passage of prose and asked to cut it down, i.e. to prepare a shortened version – usually about one-third the original number of words. The student must decide and, in deciding, show the quality of his wits.

You can produce a summary of the contents of a passage; a kind of index, the synopses or tables that stand at the beginning of a book to tell the reader what it’s about. Our summary in précis must, however, be a consecutive one; and in this way it becomes an original composition, written largely in our own words.

To be exact, what we attempt in précis is a summary of the main contents − arguments, statements, considerations − of a passage, leaving out those contents which strike us as less essential.

To begin with, we isolate in our minds the main idea of the piece, name it to ourselves, and put it at the top of our précis as a title. But to do this we should follow some rules:

– read through the passage carefully two or three times and be sure that you know what it means (what it is about);

– divide the passage up into its natural sections. Find in the passage the main thought, and its development, observe the progress of this development;

– ascertain the number of words which your précis must contain (not more than 200, or less than 150) and allot the number of words among sections according to the depth of thought;

– underline the important words and phrases;

when your précis is completed, re-read the original, and compare it carefully with your précis. Look out for any glaring divergences of meaning between the two. And see that your work reads smoothly, like a piece of original prose.

Example of an Original Passage, Notes, and Précis

Passage	Notes
It is easy to say, “Enlarge you vocabulary: first, that you may enter upon the privileges of a cultivated woman; and, second, that you may be able to tell the truth easily and accurately.”	Introduction. General remark about importance of large vocabulary.
But it is another and more difficult matter to prescribe the means by which this may be done.	Introduction Continued. Every girl must work out her own way of increasing her vocabulary.
Every girl must, to a large degree, work out her own method.
The reading of the best books and conversation with cultivated folk are both helps to the use of words.	Introduction Concluded. Reading and conversation both help.
The dictionary is the best friend for your task.	Statement of Theme. The dictionary is the best means of enlarging your vocabulary.
Never allow a strange word to pass unchallenged.	Theme expanded. Look up every new word on the spot, or hold it in the memory and consult the dictionary later. Get the habit of glancing over the dictionary later. It is a “dawdling” habit that pays.
Usually it is wise to look it up at the moment.
If that is impossible, it must be written firmly on the memory and traced at the first opportunity.
It is good to encourage in yourself the habit of dawdling a little over the dictionary.
It is the only place where dawdling reaps a harvest.
To learn two new words a day, — thoroughly to learn them, so that their use will not have a foreign accent, — is to ensure a large vocabulary before you reach middle age.	Conclusion. Thoroughly mastering two new words a day means a large vocabulary by middle age.

Précis

Every girl must work out her own way of enlarging her vocabulary. Two good ways are to read books and listen to good conversation. Better still is to make a friend of the dictionary. By going to it often, by even dawdling a little over its pages and by learning from it two new words a day, a girl will gain a large vocabulary before she is fifty (70 words).

Glossary

Annotation	a note for a literary work added by way of comment or explanation
Compression	syn.: contraction; pressing together into a smaller space
Definition	the explanation of the meaning of a word or phrase so that its meaning is perfectly clear and distinguished from that of other words and phrases
Essay	an analytic or interpretative literary composition usually dealing with its subject from a limited or personal point of view
Expansion	unfolding or spreading out
Feature article	a distinctive article, story or special department in a newspaper or magazine
Interpret	to explain the meaning; to read between the lines, i.e. to understand more than is directly stated
Notes	a condensed or informal record; a brief comment or explanation; a printed comment or reference set apart from the text
Précis	a concise summary of essential points; statements or facts; syn.: compendium; digest; summary; précis writing shows whether a student had understood has understood reading material and can extract its important points; it also teaches him how to reorganize and represent these points in a more concise form
Reading	syn.: study, peruse, pore over, wade through, plunge into
Scanning	examine extensively; reading for finding some dates, facts; making a wide sweeping search for; syn.: to look for, to seek; to inquire; to trace up; to fish out; to examine; to scrutinize; to analyze; to look into; to investigate
Skimming	reading superficially and rapidly; glancing through for chief idea or the plot; syn.: to run over, to review, to abbreviate; to condense; to sum up; to say in few words, in a nutshell
Writing	syn.: write down; compose; form, make, scribble, compile; record; note, put or set down; mark off; insert, register, list, enroll, file