VIII. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the central theme of classical liberalism?

2. How are human beings seen?

3. What is understood by 'possessive individualism'?

4. What does 'negative' liberty mean?

5. What is the central idea of Tom Paine's theory?

6. Why is the state so 'necessary'?

7. Why is it 'evil'?

8. What is the essence of economic liberalism?

9. How is laissez-faire capitalism treated?

IX. Complete the following sentences:

1. Modern liberalism is characterized by ... .

2. The term 'liberal' implies support for ... .

3. New Liberals championed a view of ... .

4. In their view, freedom is linked to ... .

5. Welfare liberalism recognizes that ... .

6. The basic social evils, the so-called 'five giants', are ....

7. Modern liberals support ... .

X. AGREE OR DISAGREE WITH THE FOLLOWING:

1. Conservative ideas emerged in the late 18^th century.

2. Conservatism in its origin dates back to the Middle Ages.

3. It defends traditional social order.

1. J. de Maistre being too reactionary rejected any ideas of reforms.

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5. The New Right is a rather statist and paternal brand of conservatism.

11. S AY WHAT DISTINGUISHES ECOLOGISM FROM ENVIRONMENTALISM.

12. COULD YOU EXPLAIN WHAT IDEOLOGIES PRO­ DUCE POSITIVE IMPACT ON HUMAN MINDS AND WHICH ONES EXERT A NEGATIVE EFFECT?

XIII. TRANSLATE THE GIVEN BELOW SENTENCES INTO ENGLISH. USE THE FOLLOWING WORD-COMBI­ NATIONS:

To be closely linked to; respect for; accumulated knowledge; tested by time; for the benefit; to promote stability and security; practical goals; approach to life; human nature; human imperfection.

1. Центральная тема консервативной мысли тесно свя­ зана с привычными добродетелями традиции, уважения обычаев и институтами власти.

2. С этой точки зрения, традиция отражает накоплен­ ные знания прошлого и те институты, которые были про­ верены временем.

3. Все это следует сохранить ради блага и пользы ны­ нешнего поколения и последующих поколений.

4. Соблюдение традиций способствует стабильности и безопасности, давая людям возможность осознать свою социальную и историческую значимость.

5. Прагматический взгляд предполагает, что любое действие должно руководствоваться обстоятельствами и практическими целями.

6. Консерваторы предпочитают говорить о своих взглядах, как об особом подходе к жизни, а не как об идеологии.

7. Консервативный взгляд на человеческую природу сводится к утверждению о несовершенстве человека.

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XIV. MAKE UP YOUR OWN SENTENCES WITH THE FOLLOWING WORD-COMBINATIONS:

To imply an attitude towards; to impose a will; to be left alone; according to merit; to champion a view of; to gain fulfillment; to achieve self-realization; to provide the basis for; to take responsibility for.

XV. READ THE TEXT AND ANSWER THE QUES­ TIONS THAT FOLLOW IT.

OTHER IDEOLOGICAL TRADITIONS

Fascism

Whereas liberalism and conservatism are nineteenth century ideologies, fascism is a child of the twentieth cen­tury. Some would say that it is specifically an interwar phenomenon. Although fascist beliefs can be traced back to the late nineteenth century, they were fused together and shaped by the First World War and its aftermath, and in particular by the potent mixture of war and revolution that characterized the period.

The two principal manifestations of fascism were Musso­lini's Fascist dictatorship in Italy in 1922-43, and Hitler's Nazi dictatorship in Germany in 1933-45. Forms of neofas­cism and neo-Nazism have also resurfaced in the final years of the twentieth century that have taken advantage of the combination of economic crisis and political instability.

In many respects, fascism constituted a revolt against the ideas and values that had dominated western political thought since the French Revolution; in the words of the Italian Fascist slogan, «1789 is dead». Values such as ra­tionalism, progress, freedom and equality were thus over­turned in the name of struggle, leadership, power, hero­ism, and war. In this sense, fascism has an «anticharac-ter». It is defined largely by what it opposes: it is a form of antiliberalism, anti-individualism and so on.

A core theme that nevertheless runs throughout fascism is the image of an organically unified national community.

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This is reflected in a belief in «strength through unity». The individual, in a literal sense, is nothing; individual identity must be entirely absorbed into that of the community or social group. The fascist ideal is that of the «new man», a hero, motivated by duty, honour and self-sacrifice, prepared to dedicate his life to the glory of his nation or race, and to give unquestioning obedience to a supreme leader.

N ot all fascists, however, think alike. Italian Fascism was essentially an extreme form of statism that was based on unquestioning respect and absolute loyalty towards a «totalitarian» state. As the Fascist philosopher Gentile (1875-1944) put it, «everything for the state; nothing against the state; nothing outside the state».

German National Socialism, on the other hand, was con­structed largely on the basis of racialism. Its two core theo­ries are Aryanism (the belief that the German people consti­tute a «master race» and are destined for world domina­tion), and a virulent form of anti-Semitism that portrayed the Jews as inherently evil and aimed at their eradication. This latter belief found expression in the «Final Solution».

XVI. QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED:

1. When was fascism born?

1. What were the two principal manifestations of fas­ cism?

2. When did forms of neofascism emerge?

3. What kind of revolt did fascism constitute?

4. Why do we say that fascism has an «anticharacter»?

5. What is the core theme of fascism?

6. Where does it find its reflection?

7. What is the fascist ideal?

8. What was Italian Fascism characterized by?

10. In what way did Gentile formulate the idea of the Italian Fascism?

11. What was German National Socialism constructed on?

12. What two core theories lay at its basis?

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XVII. EXSPLAIN WHAT IS MEANT BY:

1. neofascism;

2. Aryanism;

3. anti-Semitism.

XVIII. SPEAK ON THE TEXT AND TRY TO EXPRESS YOUR PERSONAL ATTITUDE TOWARDS THIS REAC­ TIONARY IDEOLOGY.

XIX. READ THE TEXT AND CHARACTERIZE THE BASIC FEATURES OF THIS IDEOLOGY:

Anarchism

Anarchism is unusual amongst political ideologies in that no anarchist party has ever succeeded in winning power, at least at national level. Nevertheless, anarchist movements were powerful in, for example, Spain, France, Russia and Mexico through to the early twentieth century, and anar­chist ideas continue to fertilize political debate by challen­ging the conventional belief that law, government and the state are either wholesome or indispensable.

The central theme within anarchism is the belief that political authority in all its forms, and especially in the form of the state, is both evil and unnecessary (anarchy literally means «without rule»). Nevertheless, the anarchist preference for a stateless society in which free individuals manage their own affairs through voluntary agreement and cooperation has been developed on the basis of two rival traditions: liberal individualism, and socialist communitar­ianism. Anarchism can thus be thought of as a point of intersection between liberalism and socialism: a form of both «ultraliberalism» and «ultrasocialism».

The liberal case against the state is based on individu­alism and the desire to maximize liberty and choice. Un­like liberals, individual anarchists such as William God­win (1756-1836) believed that free and rational human beings would be able to manage their affairs peacefully

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and spontaneously, government being merely a form of unwanted coercion.

M odern individualists have usually looked to the mar­ket to explain how society would be regulated in the ab­sence of state authority, developing a form of anarchocapi­talism, an extreme form of free-market economics. The more widely recognized anarchist tradition, however, draws upon socialist ideas such as community, cooperation, equality and common ownership.

Collectivist anarchists therefore stress the human ca­pacity for social solidarity that arises from our sociable, gregarious and essentially cooperative natures. On this basis, the French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, for instance, developed what he called mutualism, the belief that small communities of independent peasants, crafts­men and artisans could manage their lives using a sys­tem of fair and equitable exchange, avoiding the injustices and exploitation of capitalism. Other anarchists, such as the Russian Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921), advanced a form of anarchocommunism, the central principles of which were common ownership, decentralization and self-management.

XX. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES:

1. Anarchist movements were powerful in ... .

2. The central theme of anarchism is ... .

3. Anarchism literally means ....

4. Anarchism can be thought of as intersection between liberalism and socialism because ....

5. The liberal case is based on ... .

6. William Godwin as an anarchist believed that ....

7. The widely recognized tradition draws on ... .

8. Collectivist anarchists stress the human capacity for ... .

9. The French anarchist P.J.Proudhon developed ....

10. The Russian P.Kropotkin advanced a form of ... .

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XXI. WOULD YOU SAY THAT THERE IS SOME RA­ TIONAL IDEA IN ANARCHISM? GIVE YOUR ARGU­ MENTS.

XXII. READ THE TEXT AND SAY WHAT POINTS OF THE INFORMATION ARE OF CERTAIN INTEREST FOR YOU.

Feminism

Although feminist aspirations have been expressed in societies dating back to Ancient China, they were not un­derpinned by a developed political theory until the publi­cation of Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792). Indeed, it was not until the emergence of the women's suffrage movement in the 1840s and 1850s that feminist ideas reached a wider audience, in the form of so-called «first-wave feminism». The achievement of female suffrage in most western countries in the early twentieth century deprived the women's movement of its central goal and organizing principle.

«Second-wave feminism», however, emerged in the 1960s. This expressed the more radical, and sometimes revolution­ary, demands of the growing Women's Liberation Movement. Feminist theories and doctrines are diverse, but their unify­ing feature is a common desire to enhance, through whatever means, the social role of women. The underlying themes of feminism are therefore, first, that society is characterized by sexual or gender inequality and, second, that this structure of male power can and should be overturned.

At least three contrasting feminist traditions can be identified. Liberal feminists, such as Wollstonecraft and Betty Friedan, have tended to understand female subordi­nation in terms of the unequal distribution of rights and opportunities in society. This «equal-rights feminism» is essentially reformist. It is more concerned with the reform of the «public» sphere, that is, with enhancing the legal and political status of women and improving their educa-

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tional and career prospects, than with reordering «private» or domestic life.

I n contrast, socialist feminists typically highlight the links between female subordination and the capitalist mode of pro­duction, drawing attention to the economic significance of women being confined to a family or domestic life where they, for example, relieve male workers of the burden of domestic labour, rear and help to educate the next generation of capi­talist workers, and act as a reserve army of labour.

However, the distinctive flavour of second-wave femi­nism mainly results from the emergence of a feminist cri­tique that is not rooted in conventional political doctrines, namely radical feminism. Radical feminists believe that gender divisions are the most fundamental and politically significant cleavages in society. In their view, all societies, historical and contemporary, are characterized by patriar­chy, the institution whereby, as Kate Millett put it, «that half of the population which is female is controlled by that half which is male».

Radical feminists therefore proclaim the need for a sex­ual revolution, a revolution that will, in particular, restruc­ture personal, domestic and family life. The characteristic slogan of radical feminism, is thus «the personal is the political». Only in the extreme form, however, does radical feminism portray men as «the enemy», and proclaim the need for women to withdraw from male society, a stance sometimes expressed in the form of political lesbianism.