3. The fundamental ideas and schools of modern linguistics.

The shortcomings (недостаток) of linguistics in 19- 20 centuries was that the linguists generally studied the historical change of phonological and morphological units.

Бодуэн Де Куртенэ

Фортунатов

Фердинанд Де Соссюр Their ideas were:

1. Language is a system of signals (linguistic signs), which are independent and interconnected

2. Language as a system of signals may be compared with other signals, such as military signals.

3) Language has two aspects:

• paradigmatic (system of a language), which is a body of linguistic units:

lexis, grammar, rules, sound

• sintagmatic aspect (manifestation (олицетворение) of language) Speech, which is the term of our utterances and texts

4) The linguistic sign is bilateral, which means, that it has form meaning.

5) Language should be studied as a system in a synchronic plane, i.e. at a given moment of its existence.

The Prague School

-was formed in 1929 with Czech and Russian linguists: Mathesius, Trnka, Николай Трубецкой, Роман Якобсон. The main contribution of the Prague school is a technic for determining units of the phonological structure. The basic method – method of oppositions.

An opposition can be build by elements, which can be substituted from each other, without changing the structural meaning of elements.

Oppositional methods of morphology.

Active passive

Invites is invited

Inviting is being invited

Of the two voices, the passive voice is the marked member of the opposition. Its characteristics is the pattern: to be + past participle. The active voice is unmarked, its characteristic feature is the absence of pattern.

Oppositional analysis in syntax

A two- member sentence against one member sentence. Sentences with different arrangement of the main constituencies (главные члены).

e.g. We saw a river then.

There is a river there.

Copenhagen School

The Copenhagen School was a centre of structural linguistics founded by Louis Hjelmslev and Viggo Brøndal in 1933. He supported the idea of bilateral nature of linguistic science (both form and meaning).

Language:

-plane of content (substance – human thoughts), (form – meaning)

- plane of expression (form – linguistic form), (substance – sound and laters).

Linguistic only study the form: the form in the plain of content (is the segmentation or division of the picture of the world different languages); the form in the plain of expression (linguistic forms) Differences in grammatical categories.

4. Comparative Grammar. Descriptive Grammar. Transformational Grammar.

Comparative grammar. The historical comparative method was developed comparative method was developed in connection with comparative observation of languages belonging to the Indo- European family.

William Jones (1746) – prominent British orientalist, scholar was the first to point, that sanscrit, greek gothic and some other languages have the same source. He applied the historical comperative method, which ingenerally is used to analyse and discover the relationship of different languages and groups of languages, to reconstruct prehistoric lingual element, which were not fixed in written records. In order to study the general principles of language development. The foundations of the historic comparative method.

• Comparative method procedes from the possibility of different languages to have been originated from the same source

• Relationship of different languages is revealed on the bases of systematic comparison of their form.

Sanscrit Latin Gothic Sanscrit

Asmi sum im есмь

Asi es is ем

Asti est ist есть

• Language develops unevenly (неровно), because different structural elements of languages specifically react to and reflect the history of the society.

Descriptive and transformational grammar.

Discriptive linguistics developed from the necessity of studying of half- known or unknown Indian tribes.

The America descriptive school began with the works of Edward Sapir “Language and introductory to the study speech”.

The main ideas of Leonard Blumfield:

• Language- is a workable system of signals, by means of which people communicate.

• A sentence has a grammatical or structural meaning, which does not entirely depend on the choice of lexemes

• Grammar is a meaningful arrangement of linguistic forms, they are seem to be 4:

1. order (chocolate milk, milk chocolate)

2. modulation (изменение интонации)

3. phonetic modification

4. selection of forms, which modify the meaning

mother’s swimming

mothers’s swimming

- He gave the definition of the sentence is now accepted by modern linguists.

Each sentence is an independent linguistic form not included by means of any grammar constitution into a larger linguistic form.

He believed, that the tusk of a scientist is to observe and to describe how people actually say things. But he should not prescribe how things should be said.

Descriptive theory recognizes the following fundamental concept for analyzing linguistic material.

1. Utterance is any stretch of talk pronounced by one person before and after which there is silence on the part of the person.

2) The structural meaning of the sentence is the meaning signaled by the pars of the sentence, irrespective of their lexical meaning.

L.V. Sherba

Глюкая куздра штеко будканула бокра и куздрячит бокренка.

3) The environment position of an element is a set of neighbouring elements.

The Distribution of elements the total of all environments in which this element occurs.

4) A construction is any significant groups of words or morphemes.

5) A constituent is a linguistic form, that enters into some other larger constructions.

6) An immediate constituent is one of the 2 constituents of which the given linguistic form is directly built up.

Immediate (прямой) constituent is one of the two constituents, one of which is the given linguistic form.

The dichotomous division of the construction begins with the large elements and continues as far as possible.

De/nat/ion/al/iz/ation/ <- 6(De) 5(nat) 4(ion) 3(al) 2(iz) 1(ation)

e.g.\ The \hotel\ manager \refunded \part of \Bills \bill\.

7) Endo–centric constructions – the constructions, whose position in a sentence is the same as position of one of its constituent.

(1) Coordinate

e.g. Boys and girls came in (Каждый элемент может занять место подлежащего).

(2)Subordinate

e.g. Cats like very fresh milk.

8) Exo- centric constructions have a preposition different from the position of either of their constituence.

e.g. John walked with me.

Sentences and their classification developed by Фрэйз.

Фрэз classified sentences in accord with the responses which the sentence elicit. Sentences that begin conversation are called situation utterance units. They responses to the situation of units and the sentencies that follow them are called sequence of sentences.

The situation utterances are classified into:

1. Utterances that are immediately and regularly followed only by oral responses. (greetings, calls, questions)

2. Utterances regularly elicting action- responses (requests, commands)

3. Utterances regularly alicting conversational signals of attention to continuous discourse (statements).

The responses and sentence that follow the situation sentences are called sequence sentences.

The functional words

Freis distinguishes functional words, which are grammatical signals of the structural meaning of the sentence. (e.g. There please, sit down.)

1. Determiners

2. Modal and auxiliary

3. Adverb

4. Conjunctions

5. Prepositions

6. Introducers

7. Interrogative words

8. Interjections

9. Yes and no

10. Attention getting signals (look, say, hey)

11. The polite formula Please

12. Let us (includes speaker)

The grammatical meaning of the sentences

Фрайз offered 3 sentences, which are very clear from the point of view of their meaning.

Woggls ugged diggles.

Uggs woggled digs.

Woggs diggled uggs.

Freis developed the grammatical meaning of the sentence subject by Bloomfield.

Freis Confirmed Bloomfield ideas, that a sentence needs to have the following characteristics to be a complete grammatical unit:

1. The selection of parts of speech

2. The forms of these items

3. The arrangement of words

4. The intonation

Transformational Grammar

It appeared in the 1950^th and answered the demand for a theory, which may be applied to practice, such as data processing, machine translation, oral comprehension (осмысление) of speech and other problems, which have direct connection with language teaching. Modern Linguists believe, that the system of any language contains a rather small number of basic linguistic forms, such as: Morphemes, phonemes, sentences, other linguistic forms of different sentences are derived from these basic, which are not very numerous or difficult.

The simplicity of the system of any language of its grammar makes it possible for young children to grasp (овладеть) it and speak it.

The fundamental problems of Theoretical Grammar:

1. establishment of the domain of the kernel elements.

2. Development of the set of transformation rules for deriving all other type of sentences, as they are transforms.

3. Establishment of the order in which the transformations occur as some transforms can be derived not from the Kernel sentences, but from the other transforms.

The set Kernel sentences (Z.S. Harris).

1. noun + verb e.g. The door open

2. noun + verb + noun e.g. He took a book

3. N + V + preposition + noun e.g. I looked at the blackboard

4. N + to be + adg

5. N + to be + noun

6. N + to be + preposition + noun e.g. the news is of importance

7. N + have + noun

The set of Transformational grammar rules and order

Transformation (derivation) rule- is a rule, which requires or allows to perform certain changes in the kernel structure.

1)Transformation of words

Love(n) – Love(v)

Lovely(adj), loveless(n) Loving(adj)

Loveliness loved

Lover

Beloved

2. Transformations of sentences

Retain the grammatical and semantic relations of the original structure.

The machine works. -> The machine works and harms. -> When the machine works it harms. -> Working the machine harms. While working the machine hurms.