21. Expressive means of semasiology (language units of secondary nomination; metaphor; metonymy; irony).

- Semasiology is a branch of science that studies the meaning of language units of different levels. The subject matter of Stylistic Semasiology is expressive means and stylistic devices of the lexical language level. They are defined as the special media of language which secure the desirable effect of the utterance (I.R.Galperin). O.M. Morokhovsky claims metaphor, metonymy, irony, hyperbole and meiosis to be expressive means of Stylistic Semasiology. All these figures of speech are cases of secondary nomination dealing with transferred/ occasional/ figurative meaning of the word. Since ancient times much attention was drawn to the three tropes – metaphor, metonymy and irony.

- Aristotle claims that metaphor consists in giving the thing a name that belongs to something else; the transference being either from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or on grounds of analogy. I.R. Galperin states that metaphor means transference of some quality from one object to another, it has the power of realizing two lexical meanings simultaneously. V.A. Kukharenko argues that metaphor is transference of names based on the associated likeness between two objects.

In the theory of metaphor originated by I. Richards this stylistic device involves two parts: “tenor” which means the original idea and “vehicle” that means the borrowed idea compared to this subject. In Shakespearian Life is but a walking shadow tenor is life and vehicle is shadow. Metaphors (met.) can be classified from various viewpoints. G. Leech defines the following semantic classes of met.: a) concretive, which attributes concreteness to an abstraction: the pain of separation; b) animistic, which attributes animate characteristics to the inanimate: the shoulder of the hill; c) humanizing, which attributes characteristics of humanity to what is not human: his appearance speak for him; d) synaesthetic, which transfers meaning from one domain of sensory perception to another: his beams sing and his music shines.

- According to the degree of unexpectedness there are genuine, unexpected met., and trite (dead, hackneyed met) commonly used in speech. According to the structure met. are: simple and sustained (extended, prolonged, developed). The latter can be conveyed in a sentence or in a number of sentences or even paragraphs. N.D. Arutyunova singles out the following functions of met.: 1) primary – the function of characterization, 2) secondary – identification of the objects. In poetic speech met. performs an aesthetic aim; its function is to stir up images, ideas, notions, but not to convey information.

- According to prof. I.R.Galperin Metonymy is based on some kind of association connecting the two concepts they represent. V.A. Kukharenko claims that metonymy is based on contiguity / nearness of objects or phenomena. According to Professor Galperin the most common types of relations which metonymy is based on are the following: a) a concrete thing is used instead of an abstract notion: The camp, the pulpit and the law for rich men’s sons are fre; b) the container instead of the thing contained: The hall applauded; c) the relation of proximity: The round game table was boisterous and happy; d) the material instead of the thing made of it: The marble spoke; e) the instrument which the doer uses in performing the action instead of the action or the doer himself: The sword is the worst argument that can be used.

-Synecdoche is a kind of metonymy when a part stands for the whole and the whole stands for a part: Pip…heard the footstep stumble in coming on.

-The problem of the status of Irony was first viewed by Aristotle: it’s a kind of comical when we speak differently than we feel. In the basis of irony there lies simultaneous realization of two meanings: direct and figurative between which the relations of opposition appear. Irony can be classified into verbal irony; situational irony; dramatic irony; attitudinal irony.

Irony creates modality on different levels:

1. Lexical level: a) “blame-by-praise” – when positive changes into negative: How clever of you!; b) occasionalisms: плюшкинская щедрость; c) a polysemantic word: Robert: We’re all children once.Frederica: What a pious remark.

2. Syntactic level: a) negation by affirmation; b)patterns What a …, Such a …: What a witty guy! c) rhetorical questions: Sensitive people have deep feelings, don’t they? They suffer a lot.

3. Text level: a) confusion of the speech styles; b) quotations: ­I’m the victim. I have always been the victim. ­Pass the butter to the victim. c) repetition – any semantic unit in a new structural position receives additional meaning: Louise: You haven’t the faintest idea how to deal with sensitive people. Stanley: If it weren’t for the saving grace of his mother. His sensitive mother.

The function of irony is not confined to producing humoristic or satiric effect. Its main stylistic function is to convey evaluating attitude toward the object of the statement. It can express irritation, pity, displeasure, regret, etc.