Key Terms

1.0 Images of Life-Span Development: A 15-Year-Old Girl's Self Description

2.0 Families

autonomy

attachment

everyday conflicts

3.0 Peers

peer pressure

crowd

cliques

groups

dating

0. Culture and Adolescent Development

cross-cultural studies

rites of passage

ethnicity

model minority

diversity

prejudice

discrimination

bias

values conflict

assimilation

pluralism

5.0 Identity

crisis

commitment

identity diffusion

identity foreclosure

identity moratorium

identity achievement

individuation

connectedness

enabling behaviors

constraining behaviors

Essay and Critical Thinking Questions

Comprehension and Application Essay Questions

We recommend that you follow either our guidelines for "Answering Essay and Critical Thinking Questions," or those provided by your instructor, when preparing your response to these questions. Your answers to these kinds of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in this chapter.

1. Describe the experiences common to many adolescents, and discuss typical concerns of the parents of adolescents.

2. Explain the relationship between attachment and autonomy, and evaluate the claim that secure attachment promotes personal adjustment.

3. Imagine that you are a parent of an adolescent. Explain how you would apply Steinberg's strategy for reducing parent-adolescent conflict.

4. Explain the roles that peers play in the lives of adolescents.

5. Compare and contrast children’s and adolescents' groups.

6. What is a rite of passage? Provide and explain at least two examples of rites of passages in your own life.

7. Explain what it means to say that social class confounds ethnic explanations for adolescent development.

8. Explain the concepts of assimilation and pluralism. Discuss the role these concepts play in values conflicts.

9. Explain Marcia's four identity statuses, and indicate specific life events that would channel personality toward each of the four identity statuses.

10. Explain how variables such as family influence, culture and ethnicity, and gender influence the development of an individual's identity.

Section VII Early Adulthood Chapter 14 Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood Summary

1.0 Images of Life-Span Development: Tongue-in-Cheek Reasons Not to Take a Job

The opening vignette illustrates some pros and cons regarding a decision to take a permanent job that initiates a career and a commitment to adulthood.

2.0 The Transition from Adolescence to Adulthood

Youth and the Criteria for Becoming an Adult. Kenneth Kenniston defined youth as the transitional period between adolescence and adulthood. It is a period of economic and personal temporariness, and entails a struggle between interest in self-autonomy and becoming socially involved. This period varies from two to eight years in duration. Two criteria that define adulthood are economic independence and independent decision making.

Transition from High School to College. The transition from high school to college is similar to the transition from elementary to middle or junior high school. The transition involves movement to a larger, more impersonal school structure, interaction with peers from more diverse geographical and ethnic backgrounds, and an increased focus on achievement and its assessment. Today's college freshmen report experiencing more stress and depression than in the past. In its extreme, students report feeling burnout—a hopeless and helplessness produced by ongoing work-related stress.

3.0 Physical Development

The Peak and Slowdown in Physical Performance. During this transitional period of youth between the ages of 18 and 30, physical ability and health peak. Those tasks requiring speed and strength peak in the early to mid-twenties, and those physical tasks requiring more diverse motor skills in concert with cognitive abilities peak later. The hidden hazard of peak physical performance and health is the formation of bad health habits. Toward the end of early adulthood, there is a detectable slowdown and decline in physical status. The overall health of young adults could be improved by decreasing health-impairing life styles and promoting health-improving life styles.

Nutrition and Eating Behavior. More women than men perceive themselves as being overweight. For persons who are actually overweight, the causes can include genetic factors, physiological mechanisms, cognitive factors, and environmental influences. Obese adolescents tend to become obese adults and nonobese adults tend to put on a few extra pounds due to decreases in their basal metabolism rate. We have become an increasingly heavy population and weight-loss programs abound. Drugs such as amphetamines have not effectively controlled weight over longer periods of time. Exercise is one of the most effective ways to lose weight, especially when combined with the intake of less fat.

Exercise. Moderate and intense physical exercise produce important gains such as lowered risk of heart disease and reduced anxiety. The current recommendation is to engage in pleasurable levels of exercise.

Addiction and Recovery. Our society is plagued by a widespread addiction to drugs, most especially alcohol. Alcoholism may be termed a disease, which implies that it has genetic, and biological underpinnings. However, alcoholism is likely to be caused by a number of factors rather than heredity alone. Recovery from addiction is very difficult. Alcoholics Anonymous is a widespread self-help support group for alcoholics and people with other problems. Other non-spiritually oriented self-help support groups have appeared.

4.0 Sexuality

Sexual Attitudes and Behavior. It is a challenging task to collect information about sexual attitudes and behavior. Researchers must be cautious when interpreting their results because their samples may overrepresent individuals with liberal views.

Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior. One clear trend is an increase in the number of young people reporting sexual intercourse. Another clear trend is that the proportion of females reporting having had sexual intercourse has increased more rapidly than for males. More generally, heterosexual attitudes and behavior have become more liberal in the twentieth century; however, a double-standard still exists for premarital and extramarital sex.

Homosexual Attitudes and Behavior. Preferences for a same-sexed partner is not always a fixed decision. Rates of homosexual behavior have remained constant during the twentieth century. Until recently, acceptance of homosexuality has been increasing, but the AIDS epidemic has reversed that trend. Sexual preference, either heterosexual or homosexual, usually depends on the interaction of genetic, physiological, cognitive, and environmental factors. Sexual preference, specifically homosexuality, is not due to sexual orientation of parents, dominance levels in parents, or inappropriate role models. There is a growing concern for the bicultural adjustment of gays and lesbians and for bias and discrimination against gays and lesbians.

AIDS. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is caused by a virus, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) for which there is no known cure. AIDS has become an increasingly more serious disease, claiming the lives of 60,000 Americans a year. AIDS can be transmitted only through sexual contact, the sharing of needles, or blood transfusions. Research indicates that sexually-active individuals readily lie to their partners.

Sexual Knowledge. A recent national survey indicates that Americans are not very knowledgeable about sex. Both adolescents and adults have misconceptions about sex. One expert believes that one of the most difficult aspects of developing our sexual identity is the lack of opportunity to define and discuss the values that identify ourselves.

The Menstrual Cycle and Hormones. Hormonal changes accompanying the menstrual cycle can produce psychological changes in women. There is a relation between mood swings and the middle and later premenstrual phases of the menstrual cycle.

Forcible Sexual Behavior. Some individuals force others to engage in sexual activity. Rape entails forcible sexual intercourse with a person who does not give consent. Legal definitions of rape vary from state to state. An increasing concern is date, or acquaintance, rape. Rape is a traumatic experience. A woman's recovery depends on her coping resources and how well adjusted she was prior to the assault. Male rape occurs in about 5 percent of all rape cases.

5.0 Cognitive Development

Cognitive Stages. During the transition from adolescence to adulthood some cognitive psychologists (e.g., Piaget) argue that our cognitive abilities do not change. Others argue that change is inevitable and follows a predictable course. Labouvie-Vief focuses on the pragmatics of cognition and argues for a change from buoyant and optimistic thinking to reality-oriented and less logical thinking. Perry theorized that as individuals move into adulthood, their thinking becomes relativistic. Schaie focuses on changing family and work environments that interact with reasoning ability to produce four stages of cognitive development in adulthood: achieving, responsibility, executive, and reintegrative.

Creativity. Creativity and productivity also change during adulthood with the most productive years occurring in the thirties and the least productive occurring in the twenties. Peaks in creativity and productivity are discipline specific, with artists and writers peaking after scientists.

6.0 Careers and Work

Theories of Career Development. The choice of a career is an important developmental task during early adulthood. Ginzberg's developmental theory of career choice focuses on developmental milestones, but it ignores individual differences in the availability and desirability of careers. Super's career choice theory focuses on self-concept and its importance in choosing and staying with a career. Holland's career theory focuses on personality types and is the basis for one of the more widely used vocational interest instruments.

Exploration, Planning, and Decision Making. Career development research indicates that young people should explore a variety of career options. Planning and making decisions about careers is often disorganized and vaguely pursued. Predicting career choices and guiding individuals toward rewarding occupations is a complex task.

The Life Contour of Work in Adulthood. The occupational cycle is composed of selection and entry, adjustment and maintenance, and retirement. Selection and entry as well as adjustment are the cycles most often encountered in early adulthood. Individuals choose careers, learn their career roles, and set about meeting those expectations.

Women and Work. There has been a dramatic increase in women workers in recent years. Women have increased their presence in occupations previously dominated by men, although women, as well as ethnic minorities, still experience a "glass ceiling" in management. As greater numbers of women pursue careers, they face issues regarding career and family. Dual-career marriages entail advantages and stresses.

7.0 Contemporary Concerns

Sociocultural Worlds of Development 14.1: The Life and Career Paths of Joanne and Joan. Joanne's life history represents the traditional model of female development. In contrast, Joan's life history represents about one-third of today's women whose work ambitions supersede the earlier home-centered orientation.

Perspectives on Parenting and Education 14.1: Developing a Personal, Individualized Career Plan. Each of us is likely to make five or six job transitions during our lives. Three components of career planning include: (a) goals, hopes, and wishes, (b) marketable skills, and (c) personal fit. It is best to think of goals in terms of multiple categories such as health/fitness, social interaction, special relationships, and work/careers.

Life-Span Practical Knowledge 14.1: The Road Less Traveled. One view of M. Scott Peck's book is that it presents a spiritual- and emotionally-based approach to self-fulfillment. A second view is that his ideas are not novel and his thoughts are occasionally fuzzy.

Life-Span Practical Knowledge 14.2: The New Fit or Fat. This book by Covert Bailey describes ways to become healthy by developing better diet and exercise routines. The newest edition contains the more recent information on fitness lifestyles and scientific advances.

Life-Span Practical Knowledge 14.3: The New Aerobics. Kenneth Cooper's book presents recommendations for aerobic exercise that is age-adjusted and entails a simple point system.

Life-Span Practical Knowledge 14.4: The Truth about Addiction and Recovery. The authors draw on recent research to argue that additions of any sort need not be a life-long problem. Their program for recovery emphasizes coping with stress and achieving one's goals.

Life-Span Practical Knowledge 14.5: For Yourself. Lonnie Barbach's book provides advice for women about how to achieve sexual fulfillment. The author is a sex therapist who examines cultural attitudes and provides exercises that enable women to achieve orgasm.

Life-Span Practical Knowledge 14.6: Permanent Partners. Betty Berzon's book is about gay and lesbian relationships, and is helpful to gays and lesbians who are thinking about becoming a couple and for anyone who wants to improve their understanding of gay and lesbian couples.

Life-Span Practical Knowledge 14.7: The New Male Sexuality. Bernie Zilbergeld's book is a current and comprehensive treatment of male sexuality. It is an easy-to-read, well-organized, and authoritative guide to male sexuality.

Life-Span Practical Knowledge 14.8: What Color is Your Parachute? Richard Bolles's book answers questions about the process of hunting for a job and provides many valuable sources of information. This book also discusses job hunting for individuals seeking to change careers.

Life-Span Health and Well-Being: Women's Health Issues. The experience of health and the health care system is different for men and women. Women have special health concerns and there is a growing concern regarding sex and gender bias in the selection of participants in medical research.