- •Теоретическая грамматика английского языка
- •§ 2. The phoneme, the morpheme, the word and the sentence are units of different levels of language structure. The phoneme is a unit of the lowest level, the sentence — of the highest.
- •§ 5. The structure, classification and combinability of phonemes is studied by a branch of linguistics called phonology.
- •Morphology
- •Introduction
- •§ 10. The morphemes book- and -s differ essentially:
- •§ 13. Besides lexical and grammatical morphemes there exist some intermediate types.
- •§ 18. In accordance with their structure the following four types of stems are usually distinguished:
- •§ 25. All the words of a lexeme, both synthetic and analytical, are, as defined (§ 19), united by the same lexical meanings.
- •§ 26. Analytical words are closely connected with synthetic ones.
- •§ 28. As shown by a. I. Smirnitsky, words derived from different roots may be recognized as suppletive only under the following conditions:
- •§ 29. The above-mentioned criteria serve to prove the identity of lexical morphemes in spite of their difference in form. The same criteria can be used to prove the identity of any morphemes.
- •§ 30. We have already spoken (§§ 14, 15, 18) about lexico-grammatical morphemes and their functions as stem-building elements. Now we are to see their role in building up classes of words.
- •§ 31. Let us compare the following columns of words:
- •Parts of speech
- •§ 39. Lexemes united by the genera! lexico-grammatical meaning of "substance" are called nouns. Those having the general lexico-grammatical meaning of "action" are called verbs, etc., etc.
- •§ 43. It must be borne in mind, however, that not all the lexemes of a part of speech have the same paradigms.
- •§ 44. The influence of the category of number is obliquely felt even in a case like milk. The word milk is closer to the "singular" member of a number opposeme than to the "plural" one.
- •§ 48. In accordance with the principles described above it is possible to distinguish the following parts of speech in English:
- •§49. Many linguists point out the difference between such parts of speech as, say, nouns or verbs, on the one hand and prepositions or conjunctions, on the other.
- •§ 51. A similar distinction can be drawn between notional and semi-notional lexemes within a part of speech (see § 194) and between notional and semi-notional parts of speech.
- •§ 57. A. I. Smirnitsky defines conversion as a type of word-building in which the paradigm is the only means of word-building.
- •§ 63. The relations between these variants remind us of conversion:
- •§ 64. As follows from our previous discussion of the parts of speech in English, the noun may be defined as a part of speech characterized by the following features:
- •§ 66. Many nouns are related by conversion1 with lexemes belonging to other parts of speech:
- •§ 70. A noun may be used in the function of almost any part of the sentence, though its most typical functions are those of the subject and the object. (See Syntax.)
- •§ 79. Nouns like police, militia, cattle, poultry are pluralia tantum, judging by their combinability, though not by form 3.
- •§ 80. Sometimes variants of a lexeme may belong to the same, lexico-grammatical subclass and yet have different forms of number opposemes.
- •§ 82. Case is one of those categories which show the close connection (a) between language and speech, (b) between mor-phology and syntax.
- •§91. Nouns representing 'plural' grammemes may denote:
- •§ 92. Nouns representing 'common case' grammemes express a wide range, of meanings, the exhaustive examination of which is hardly feasible. Here are some of them.
- •§ 93. As we have seen, 'possessive case' nouns occur a great deal less frequently than their opposites1.
- •§ 97. In the Russian language a noun in the genitive case may be adnominal and adverbial, I. E. It can be attached to a noun and to a verb.
- •§ 100. Let us compare the-English noun with its Russian counterpart. The five properties we use as criteria for distinguishing parts of speech will serve as the basis of comparison.
- •§ 101. Adjectives are a part of speech characterized by the following typical features:
- •§ 104. Suppletive opposemes are few in number but of very frequent occurrence.
- •§ 113. In certain speech environments adjectives can bе used to communicate meanings in some respect different from those of the grammemes they belong to.
- •§ 115. Following is a brief comparison of the basic features of English and Russian adjectives.
- •§ 116. The adverb is a part of speech characterized by the following features:
- •§ 123. Quantitative adverbs like very, rather, too, nearly, greatly, fully, hardly, quite, utterly, twofold, etc. Show the degree, measure, quantity of an action, quality, state, etc.
- •§ 124. Circumstantial adverbs serve to denote various circumstances (mostly local and temporal) attending an action. Accordingly they fall under two heads:
- •§127; Circumstantial adverbs are mostly used in the function of adverbial modifiers of time and placer
- •§ 130. The numeral as a part of speech is characterized by
- •§ 131. The lexico-grammatical meaning of 'number' is not to be confused with the grammatical meaning of 'number'.
- •§ 133. In our opinion, the pair ten — tenth forms an oppo-seme of the grammatical category of numerical qualification.
- •§ 135. As to their stem structure English numerals fall into
- •§ 136. Numerals are easily substantivized, acquiring noun features. •
- •§ 144. The personal pronouns are the nucleus of the class. They are: I (me), thou (thee)1, he (him), she (her), it, we (us), you, they (them).
- •§ 157. Self-pronouns are often used in apposition for emphasis. Dickson's view on the Middle Ages themselves would have to wait until another time. (Amis).
- •§ 159. Demonstrative pronouns can be:
- •§ 162. The pronoun who is the only interrogative pronoun which has a case opposite, whom, as in Whom did you meet?
- •§ 180. Most quantitative pronouns form opposemes of comparison:
- •§ 181. Here belong other (others, other's, others'), another (another's) and otherwise.
- •§ 182. The pronoun one stands somewhat apart, outside the classification discussed above.
- •§ 183. As an indefinite pronoun it is usually a pro-adjective with the meaning "a certain" and refers to both living beings and inanimate things.
- •§ 184. As an indefinite or generalizing personal pronoun one indicates only a person. It is a pro-noun. It has a case opposite one's and is correlated with the reflexive pronoun oneself.
- •§ 186. Summing up, we may say that the pronouns are hot united by any morphological categories, or syntactical functions. So they cannot be regarded as a part of speech.
- •§ 188. As a part of speech the verb is characterized by the following properties:
- •§ 194. Semantically verbs divide into notional and semi-notional (see § 50).
- •§ 196. Modal verbs are characterized:
- •§ 198. Verbs are divided into subjective and objective, depending upon their combinability with words denoting the subjects and the objects of the actions they name (see § 191).
- •§ 200. As usual, variants of a verb lexeme may belong to different subclasses (see § 62).
- •§ 201. Verbs can be classified in accordance with the aspective nature of their lexical meanings into terminative and non-terminative.
- •§ 202. As usual, variants of the same lexeme may belong to different subclasses. When meaning '(to) engage in physical or mental activity', the verb (to)work is non-terminative.
- •§ 208. Participle II may have left-hand connections with link-verbs.
- •The Category of Order (Time Correlation)
- •§ 213. Linguists disagree as to the category the 'perfect' belongs to.
- •§ 216. Let us take an extract from j. Galsworthy's novel To Let:
- •§ 219. The problem of aspect is controversial in English grammar. There is but little consensus of opinion about this category in Modern English.
- •§ 222. Besides those properties that characterize the verb as a whole, the finites possess certain features not shared by the verbids.
- •§ 224. Mood is the grammatical category of the verb reflecting the relation of the action denoted by the verb to reality from the speaker's point of view.
- •§ 229. The indicative mood is the basic mood of the verb. Morphologically it is the most developed system including all the categories of the verb.
- •§ 233. The correlation of time and tense is connected with the problem of the absolute and relative use of tense grammemes.
- •§ 236. In Modern English the category of person has certain peculiarities.
- •§ 240. The development of the modal verbs and that of the subjunctive mood — the lexical and morphological ways of expressing modality1 — have much in common.
- •§ 243. The 'passive voice' and 'continuous aspect' meanings are expressed much in the same way as in the indicative mood system.
- •§ 245. The difference between the two sets of opposemes
- •Verb Grammemes in Speech
- •§ 252. The systems of different moods, as we know, contain different grammemes. We shall therefore discuss the grammemes of the indicative, subjunctive and imperative moods separately.
- •Indicative Mood Grammemes
- •§ 254. The action it denotes may either coincide with the moment of speech or cover a more or less lengthy period of time including the moment of speech.
- •§ 255. In a context showing that reference is made to the past, the present non-continuous non-perfect may be used to denote past events, mostly presented as the speaker's reminiscences.
- •§ 274. The present non-continuous perfect is regularly found in adverbial clauses of time and condition when the connotation of priority is implied.
- •§ 275. What makes the present non-continuous perfect fundamentally different from the past non-continuous non-perfect can be briefly summarized as follows:
- •§ 276. As a unit of the language system it presents an act in the past (past tense) unspecified as to its character (non-continuous aspect) and preceding some situation (perfect order).
- •§ 277. When used with terminative verbs it may acquire a distinct connotation of resultativity, as in
- •§ 278. The past non-continuous perfect may be inclusive in meaning if supported by the context.
- •§ 280. As a part of the verb system it presents a future action (future tense), unspecified as to its character (non-continuous aspect) and prior to some situation in the future (perfect order).
- •§ 285. The past continuous perfect has much in common with the present continuous perfect, the main difference between them being that of tense.
- •§ 286. Like the present continuous perfect it may be inclusive if supported by the context or else exclusive as in
- •§ 287. The future perfect continuous is actually nonexistent.
- •Voice Grammemes
- •§ 292. It has often, been claimed that passive structures can be regarded as transforms of certain active structures 1.
- •§295. Representatives of subjunctive I grammemes can be distinguished from their indicative and imperative mood homonyms as follows.
- •§ 296. Following are some types of clauses in which should grammemes and their synonyms are regularly used.
- •Imperative Mood Grammemes in Speech
- •§ 303. Besides the features common to the English verb as a whole (see § 188) the verbids have certain features of their own distinguishing them from the finite verb.
- •§ 306. The verbids do not possess many of the categories of the finite verb, such as number, person, tense and mood.
- •§ 307. Here is a table presenting the paradigms of the verbids.
- •§ 308. The combinability of the verbids is of mixed nature. Partly, as we have seen, it resembles that of a finite verb. But some models of combinability are akin to those of other parts of speech.
- •§ 311. The infinitive is a verbid characterized by the following features:
- •§ 317. The participle is a verbid characterized by the following properties:
- •§ 319. As we have already mentioned, the adjectival and the adverbial features of the participle are connected with its combinability.
- •§ 321. The gerund is a verbid characterized by the following features:
- •§ 324. The gerund, which is a peculiarity of the English language, is very extensively used as the centre of complexes (nexuses) synonymous with subordinate clauses. Compare:
- •§ 326. In compliance with the system adopted we shall now work out the comparison of the basic features of the English verb with those of the Russian verb.
- •The adlink (the category of state)
- •§ 327. In Modern English there exists a certain class of words such as asleep, alive, afloat, which is characterized by:
- •The modal words (modals)
- •§ 329. As a part of speech the modals are characterized by the following features:
- •§ 331. The relatively negative combinability of modal words manifests itself in various ways.
- •§ 332. Functioning as a parenthetical element of a sentence, a modal word is usually connected with the sentence as a whole.
- •§ 333. The usage of modals depends upon the type of sentence. They are found almost exclusively in declarative sentences, very rarely in interrogative and almost never in imperative sentences.
- •§ 334. The response-words yes and no are characterized as a separate class by
- •§ 335. Practically every notional word can alone make a sentence in a certain situation of speech.
- •§ 336. Their lexical meanings are those of 'affirmation' and 'negation'. Their lexico-grammatical meaning is that of 'response statement'. They confirm or deny a previous statement.
- •§351. The combinability of at in the last example resembles, to some extent, that of an adverb. Cf. To be laughed away (off).
- •§ 359. The combinability of subordinating conjunctions is somewhat different from that of coordinating ones.
- •§ 360. The division of conjunctions into coordinating and subordinating ones is chiefly based on their lexical meanings and the types of units they connect.
- •§ 361. According to their meanings coordinating conjunctions are divided into
- •§ 362. Though for and so are considered coordinating conjunctions, they are in fact intermediate between coordinating and subordinating conjunctions.
- •§ 363. The conjunctions are not numerous, but of very frequent occurrence in speech.
- •§ 364. The two words a(n), the form a separate group or class characterized by
- •§ 367. Some grammarians speak of the 'zero article' 1 or the 'zero form of the indefinite article' 2. We are definitely against these terms.
- •§ 369. In accordance with its meaning 'one of many' the indefinite article is used to denote one thing of a class and is therefore a classifying article.
§ 43. It must be borne in mind, however, that not all the lexemes of a part of speech have the same paradigms.
Cf. 1. student book information
2. students books —
3. student's — —
4. students' — —
The first lexeme has opposemes of two grammatical categories: number and case. The second lexeme has only one opposeme — that of number. It has no case opposemes. In other words, it is outside the category of case. The third lexeme is outside both categories: it has no opposemes at all. We may say that the number opposeme with its opposite grammatical meanings of 'singularity' and 'plurality' is -neutralized in nouns like information, bread, milk, etc. owing to their lexical meanings which can hardly be associated with the notions of 'oneness' or 'more-than-oneness' (cf. the uncommonness of * two milks, * three informations, etc.).
Sometimes only the form of an opposeme is neutralized in certain surroundings. Cf. dozen — dozens, but one (five) dozen; foot—feet, but one (four) foot three (inches).
We may define neutralization as the reduction of an opposeme to one of its members under certain circumstances. This member may be called the member of neutralization. Usually it is the unmarked member of an opposeme. In number opposemes, for instance, the member of neutralization is mostly the unmarked 'singular'. However, sometimes the marked 'plural' becomes the member of neutralization, as in the case of trousers, tongs, sweets, etc. The category of number is by no means an exception as regards the neutralization of its opposemes. We may recognize the neutralization of the case opposemes in nouns like book, hand, thought, etc.; of the category of the degrees of comparison in adjectives like deaf, blind, wooden, etc.; of the category of aspect in verbs like to believe, to resemble, etc.
In all such cases we speak of the neutralization of opposemes actually existing in other lexemes of the same class. Cf. hand and man — man's, blind and kind — kinder — kindest, believe and read — be reading.
Note. But there are no grounds to speak of the neutralization of the gender opposeme in the adjective blind (cf. слепой — слепая — слепое) because no adjective lexemes have gender opposemes in English.
§ 44. The influence of the category of number is obliquely felt even in a case like milk. The word milk is closer to the "singular" member of a number opposeme than to the "plural" one.
a) Like the "singular" member it has no positive inflection.
b) It is usually linked with words having the "singular" meaning.
Cf. This (book, milk) is ...
These books are ...
Thus, the word milk can be said to have an oblique "singular" meaning. It is oblique because it is acquired not as a result of direct opposition, but through association and analogy with words having "plural" opposites. Similarly book can be said to have an oblique 'common case' meaning by analogy with words like boy, cook which have an actual meaning of "common case" owing to the opposemes boy — boy's, cook — cook's.
Likewise the verbs creeps, conies have an oblique meaning of 'active voice' by analogy with the first members in such opposemes as keeps — is kept, makes — is made.
Oblique grammatical meanings can also be regarded as potential meanings that can be actualized if necessary. Ordinarily the word room, for instance, has but an oblique meaning of 'common case' with no 'possessive case' opposite, but Galsworthy uses 'the room ' s atmosphere'. We find the same actualization of a potential 'number' meaning in There was no room for the separate bitternesses. (Wilson).
The actualization of a potential 'voice' meaning is observed in a sentence like The bed had not been slept in.
Taking into consideration that oblique grammatical meanings unite numbers of lexemes into more or less homogeneous groups, we may also treat them as lexico-grammatical meanings, for example, nouns like milk, water, steel, self-possession are united by the oblique meaning of 'singular number' into one lexico-grammatical group of uncountables.
Now coming back to the nouns student, book, information we can say that all of them have the meanings of 'singular number' and 'common case'. Only in the noun book the 'case' meaning and in the noun information both of them are oblique, or potential, or lexico-grammatical ones.
§ 45. Another important feature of a part of speech is its combinability, i. e. the ability to form certain combinations of words. As stated (§34), we distinguish lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical combinability.
When speaking of the combinability of parts of speech, lexico-grammatical meanings are to be considered first. In this sense combinability is the power of a lexico-grammatical class of words to form combinations of definite patterns with words of certain classes irrespective of their lexical or grammatical meanings.
Owing to the lexico-grammatical meanings of nouns ("substance") and prepositions ("relation (of substances)") these two parts of speech often go together in speech. The model to (from, at) school characterizes both nouns and prepositions as distinct from adverbs which do not usually form combinations of the type * to loudly, * from loudly. The same is true about articles (a book, the book but not *a below, * the speak), adjectives (pleasant silence but not * pleasant silently), etc.
A s already mentioned (§ 36), a characteristic feature of articles is their unilateral right-hand combinability with nouns. Unilateral right-hand connections, but with different classes of words, are also typical of particles (even John, even yesterday, even beautiful). Bilateral connections are typical of conjunctions and prepositions. The connections of nouns and verbs in speech are variable, but right-hand connections are more numerous with verbs
(I sent him a letter yesterday),
and left-hand connections are predominant with nouns (to my dear sister). The lexico-grammatical combinability of such words as alas, hurrah (interjections), or perhaps, possibly (modal words) is practically zero or negative in the sense that, as a rule, they do not form combinations with other words.
Thus the combinability of a word, its connections in speech help to show to what part of speech it belongs.
The impossibility of forming combinations with certain classes of lexemes may serve as valuable negative criteria in the classification of lexemes. Thus the fact that the adjective can form no combinations of the 'preposition + adjective' pattern or a verb cannot attach an article help to distinguish them from other parts of speech.
§ 46. Parts of speech are said to be characterized also by their function in the sentence. A noun is mostly used as a subject or an object, a verb usually functions as a predicate, an adjective — as an attribute, etc.
To some extent this is true. There is some connection between parts of speech and parts of the sentence, but it never assumes the nature of obligatory correspondence. The subject of a sentence may be expressed not only by a noun but also by a pronoun, a numeral, a gerund, an infinitive, etc. On the other hand, a noun can (alone or with some other word) fulfil the function of almost any part of the sentence. Besides, the typical functions of student and student's are not the same. Now. prepositions, conjunctions, particles, etc. are usually not recognized as fulfilling the function of any part of the sentence, so with regard to them the meaning of the term 'syntactical function' is quite different (see § 421).
All this and the desire to avoid, as far as possible, the confusion of the two basic units of grammar, the word and the sentence, must necessarily reduce the role of the sentence criterion in defining parts of speech. This is why we place it last though some linguists1 give it the first place.
§ 47. Thus a part of speech is a class of lexemes characterized by 1) its lexico-grammatical meaning, 2) its lexico-grammatical morphemes (stem-building elements), 3) its grammatical categories or its paradigms, 4) its combinability, and 5) its functions in a sentence.
All these features distinguish, for instance, the lexeme represented by the word teacher from that represented by the word teach and stamp the words of the first lexeme as nouns, those of the other lexeme as verbs.
But very often lexemes or even parts of speech lack some of these features. The noun lexeme information lacks feature 3. The adjective lexeme deaf lacks both feature 2 and feature 3. So do the adverbs back, seldom, very, the prepositions with, of, at, etc.
Features 1, 4 and 5 are the most general properties of parts of speech.