§ 18. In accordance with their structure the following four types of stems are usually distinguished:

1. Simple, containing only the root, as in day, dogs, write, wanted, etc.

2. Derivative, containing affixes or other stem-building elements, as in boyhood, rewrite, strength, speech (cf. speak) transport, etc.

3. Compound, containing two or more roots, as in white­wash, pickpocket, appletree, motor-car, brother-in-law, etc.

Note: The stems of blue-eyed, lion-hearted, etc. are both compound and derivative and are sometimes called compound derivatives'.

4. Composite, containing free lexico-grammatical word-morphemes or otherwise having the form of a combination of words, as in give up, two hundred and twenty-five, at last, in spite of, etc.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS

§ 19. A morpheme usually has more than one meaning. This is the case, for instance, with both the lexical and the grammatical morpheme in the word runs. The morpheme run- has the following meanings: 1) "move with quick steps" (The boy runs fast); 2) "flow" (A tear runs-...); 3) "become" (to run dry); 4) "manage" (run a business); 5) "cause to move" (run a car), and many others. The meanings of the -s morpheme are as follows: 1) "present tense", 2) "indicative mood", 3) "third person", 4) "singular number", 5) "non-continuous aspect", and some others.

All the lexical meanings of the word runs, inherent in the morpheme run-, unite this word with to run, running, will run, shall run, has run, had run, is running, was running, etc. into one group called a lexeme.¹

All the grammatical meanings of the. word runs, inherent in the morpheme -s, unite this word with walks, stands, sleeps, skates, lives and a great many other words into a group we shall call a grammeme ².

The words of a lexeme or of a grammeme are united not only by the meanings of the corresponding morpheme, but by its form too. Still the content is of greater importance, the form often differing considerably. The words runs and ran, for instance, have the same lexical meanings and belong therefore to the same lexeme in spite of the formal difference (but see § 11). Even more significant is an example like buy and bought. But most striking are cases like go and went, I and me, etc. (see later, § 28). Similar examples can illustrate the formal variations of a grammatical morpheme uniting words into a grammeme: lived, walked, skated, slept, ran, went.

The number of words in an English lexeme may vary from one (must; milk; woolen; always) to several dozens (writes, wrote, will write, shall write, am writing, are writing, was writing, were writing, have written, has written, had written, is written, was written, etc.).

Note. The lexeme represented by write contains 94 words expressed by 64 forms, of these only 10 words have synthetic forms, five in number, Here they are:

1. write (infinitive, indicative, subjunctive, imperative)

2. writes

3. wrote (indicative, subjunctive)

4. writing (gerund, participle)

5. written

The number of words in a grammeme is usually very great, practically limitless. But occasionally a grammeme may contain one word only. For instance, the grammeme having the meanings of 'indicative mood', 'past tense', 'plural number', 'non-continuous aspect', and 'non-perfect order' (see § 212) contains but one word — were.

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¹ As already mentioned (§ 6), many grammarians use the term word with regard to such a group.

² The term grammeme (grameme), with a different meaning, was used by K. Pike in Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of Human Behavior (1954—1955) and Grammemic Theory in Reference to Restricted Problems of Morpheme Classes (1957).In 1958 Pike replaced grammeme with Bloomfield's term tagmeme.

A. Juilland (Outline of a General Theory of Structural Relations. Mon­ton, 1961) uses the terms lexeme, grammeme for 'roots' and 'non-roots'.

§ 20. From the previous paragraph it is clear that a word like runs containing a lexical and a grammatical morpheme is at the same time a member of a certain lexeme and of a certain grammeme. In a lexeme the lexical morpheme may be regarded as invariable (at least in content) and the grammat­ical morphemes as variables. In a grammeme, on the con­trary, the grammatical morpheme is invariable and the le­xical morphemes are variables. This can be seen from the following table.

	Lexeme 1	Lexeme 2	Lexeme 3
Grammeme 1	boy	girl	captain	common case, singular number
Grammeme 2	boy's	girl's	captain's	possessive case, singular number
Grammeme 3	boys	girls	captains	common case, plural number
Grammeme 4	boys'	girls'	captains'	possessive case, plural number
	male child, son, male servant, etc.	female child, daughter, maid servant, etc.	leader, chief, officer, etc.	m eanings of grammemes meanings of lexemes

As we see, each word of a lexeme represents a certain grammeme, and each word of a grammeme represents a certain lexeme. The set of grammemes represented by all the words of a lexeme is its paradigm. The set of lexemes represented by all the words of a grammeme is usually so large that it is almost of no practical value and has therefore got no name. The paradigms of the three lexemes in the table above are identical and characterize the lexemes as belonging to a class called nouns. The paradigm of the lexeme want, wants, wanted, shall want, etc. is quite different and stamps it as belonging to another class called verbs.

§ 21. There is an essential difference in the way lexical and grammatical meanings exist in the language and occur in speech. Lexical meanings can be found in a bunch only in a dictionary or in the memory of a man, or, scientifically, in the lexical system of a language. In actual speech a lexical morpheme displays only one meaning of the bunch in each ease, and that meaning is singled out by the context or the situation of speech (in grammar parlance, syntagmatically). As seen already (§ 19), words of the same lexeme convey different meanings in different surroundings. In the sentence The boy runs fast the word runs has meaning 1. In Л tear runs down her cheek it has meaning 2. In runs dry it conveys mean­ing 3. In runs a car — meaning 5, and so on.

The meanings of a grammatical morpheme always-come together in the word. In accordance with their relative nature (§ 10) they can be singled out only relatively in contrast to the meanings of other grammatical morphemes (in grammar parlance, paradigmatically). Supposing we want to single out the meaning of 'non-continuous aspect' in the word runs. We have then to find another word which has all the meanings of the word runs but that of 'non-continuous aspect'. The only word that meets these requirements is the analytical word is running. Runs and is running belong to the same lexeme, and their lexical meanings are identical. As to the grammatical meanings the two words do not differ in tense ('present'), number ('singular'), person ('third'), mood ('indicative'), etc. They differ only in aspect. The word runs has the meaning of 'non-continuous aspect' and is running — that of 'contin­uous aspect'. Thus all the difference in the forms of the two contrasted words serves to distinguish only these aspect meanings which are thus singled out from the whole bunch.

§ 22. When opposed, the two words, runs — is running, form a peculiar language unit. All their meanings but those of aspect counterbalance one another and do not count. Only the two particular meanings of 'non-continuous' and 'con­tinuous' aspect united by the general meaning of 'aspect' are revealed in this opposition or opposeme, to use an -eme word (Cf. phoneme, morpheme, lexeme, grammeme). The general meaning of this opposeme ('aspect') manifests itself in the two particular meanings ('non-continuous aspect' and 'continuous aspect') of the opposite members (or opposites).

Now we may regard the word runs as representing the whole grammeme runs, walks, stands, sleeps, skates, lives, etc. Likewise, the word is running represents the grammeme is running, is walking, is standing, is sleeping, is skating, is living, etc. When contrasted the two grammemes can also be regarded as an aspect opposeme since they show the partic­ular meanings of 'continuous' and 'non-continuous' aspects united by the general meaning of 'aspect'.

The pairs ran — was running, shall run — shall be run­ning, to run — to be running, etc. and the corresponding grammemes are ail aspect opposemes with the same general meaning and identical particular meanings.

All the aspect opposemes make up a system which is called the category of aspect. Each opposeme represents the catego­ry as a molecule represents a certain substance, but the extent of the category is shown by the whole system of opposemes.

§ 23. The category of tense is the system of tense oppose­mes in a given language. A tense opposeme in English con­sists not of two but of three members (writes — wrote — will write; is writing — was writing — will be writing) because the general meaning of 'tense' manifests itself in three partic­ular meanings: 'present', 'past' and 'future'. The pair is writing — was writing cannot be regarded as a tense opposeme because one particular manifestation of 'tense' (the 'future tense') is missing: will be writing. Neither can the group writes — wrote — was writing — will write be looked upon as a tense opposeme since the 'past tense' is manifested twice: in wrote and was writing. Besides, was writing intro­duces the 'continuous' meaning which the other members of the group do not possess.

In general, an opposeme of any grammatical category consists of as many members (or opposites) as there are partic­ular manifestations of the general meaning. Thus, a morpho­logical opposeme is a minimum set of words revealing (by the difference in their forms) only (and all) the particular mani­festations of some general grammatical meaning. Any morpho­logical category is the system of such opposemes whose members differ in form to express only (and all) the particular manifesta­tions of the general meaning of the category.

§ 24. The structure of a lexeme is defined by the opposeme it contains. The lexeme represented by the word long, for instance, contains the opposeme of but one category, the 'degrees of comparison'. Its structure, therefore, is, so to say, of one dimension: long — longer — longest. The lexeme represented by the word boy contains opposemes of two cat­egories, 'number' and 'case'. As a result, its structure is a two-dimension one:

Each category is represented here by two opposemes. In English there are no lexemes of three-dimension structure. If the infinitive were regarded as a separate lexeme, it could be a model of this kind:

To be being led and to have been being led are rarely used (see John Millington-Ward. Pecularities in English. L., 1957, p. 250)

Here each category is represented by four opposemes.

The structure of an English verb lexeme containing oppo­semes of seven categories is so complicated that it is next to impossible to present it on paper.