§ 135. As to their stem structure English numerals fall into

a) simple or root numerals, such as one, two, three (up to twelve),

b) derivative numerals formed with the help of the suf-fixes -teen (from thirteen to nineteen), -ty (from twenty to ninety),

c) compound numerals (from twenty-one to ninety-nine) and

d) composite numerals, such as nine hundred and three. It is owing to the remarkable way of forming composite numerals that an unlimited multitude of numbers can be named with the help of a limited number of words.

It has been pointed out that numerals have a peculiar manner of building up compound and composite stems not observed in any other part of speech.

When a numeral of a lower rank follows a higher numeral their numbers are added, as in eighty-one = eighty + one.

If the order is reverse, the numbers are multiplied. E. g. five hundred = five X hundred. In too hundred and nine mul­tiplication and addition are combined.

§ 136. Numerals are easily substantivized, acquiring noun features. •

Let us by way of illustration take the following sentence from a school text-book in arithmetic: "In order to add two numbers add the units of one number to the units of the other, the tens to the tens, the hundreds to the hundreds, etc." Неге the numerals tens, hundreds have many features in common with the noun units. They have the lexico-grarnmatical meaning of 'substance', the 'plural', suffix -s; they have left-hand connections with articles, prepositions; they are used in the functions of objects. Other instances of the substanti­vization of numerals are: Arrival of Moscow eleven. (The Worker). Two can play at that game. We are seven. Form fours!

§ 137. The analysis of numeral grammemes in speech presents a picture largely similar to that displayed by adjec­tival grammemes. The frequency of their occurrence in the analyzed modern literary texts is as follows:

cardinal grammemes — 84 per cent

ordinal grammemes — 16 per cent,

the unmarked members of the opposeme as less specific (here as elsewhere) constituting the bulk of numerals used in speech flow.

Below are combinability patterns of numeral grammemes arranged in tabular form.

Pattern	Cardinal grammeme (per cent)	Ordinal grammeme (per cent)
art. + num. + noun	80	98
noun + prepos. + num.	8	-
link-verb + num.	8	1
other models (page ten, one of them, etc.)	4	1

§ 138. English and Russian numerals are similar as to their lexico-grammatical meanings, ways of stem-building, combinability and syntactical functions, but they differ greatly as regards their grammatical categories.

1) Unlike their English counterparts, Russian numerals possess the categories of gender (пятый — пятая — пятое) case (четыре — четырех — четырем, etc.) and number (пер­вый —первые).

2) There is a great difference between ordinal and cardi-nal numerals in Russian as far as their categories are con­cerned. Ordinal numerals resemble adjectives not only in having the categories of number, gender and case, but in the forms of the grammatical morphemes as well.

Cf. пятый — красный пятого — красного пятому — красному

пятая — красная пятые — красные

Cardinal numerals do not possess the categories of number and gender (with the exception of один, два). The case inflec­tions are also different.

Cf. десять — десяти — десятью

знать — знати — знатью

It is no wonder, therefore, that some linguists separate cardinal and ordinal numerals in Russian and regard the "latter as adjectives. But this is certainly no reason why the same should be done in English (§ 132) where conditions are quite different.

PRONOUNS

§ 139. It has been shown above that words fall into classes known as parts of speech in accordance with their lexico-grammatical meanings, morphological categories, typi­cal stem-building elements, combinability and functions.

The peculiarity of pronouns as a class of words is that they are not united by any of the above-mentioned features. True, they have certain grammatical peculiarities, but what unites them is the way they denote reality.

Pronouns are words serving to denote substances, qualities, quantities, circumstances, etc. not by naming or describing them, but by indicating them.

As words of the vocabulary pronouns have extremely general meanings. But in speech pronouns indicate particular objects or qualities. When a speaker says I, he refers to himself, i. e. to a particular person of definite age, height, colour of hair, etc. When another speaker says I, he also refers to himself, but this time it is another person with other fea-tures. Thus, the meaning of I, general as it is, remains the same, but the objects referred to are different.

The meaning of the pronoun such is "of the same kind", but one speaker may use such to indicate a definite colour, ' another speaker may use it with reference to some size, a third qbe to indicate a particular temperature, etc.

On the other hand, one and the same person may be re­ferred to as I, you or he, depending upon who speaks. This and that may indicate the same object, depending on the rela­tive position of the speaker and the object. Thus, pronouns can be defined as words whose meanings are very general and stable, but whose references in speech are particular, vari­able and relative with regard to the speaker and the situation of speech.

We insist on the stability of meaning and the variability and relativity of reference, because many authors speak of the relative m e a n i n g of pronouns. But when we ask. What is this? referring now to the blackboard, now to a piece of chalk, we use the word this with the same meaning, "the object I point at" or "the object I demonstrate", and not with the meanings of "blackboard", "piece of chalk", etc. Those arе only the objects of reference and not the meanings of the word this.

§ 140. Etymologically the word 'pronoun' means "a word used instead of a noun". This meaning reflects, to some extent, the role of pronouns in language. Owing to the exceptional variability of reference a pronoun may replace hundreds of nouns with comparatively stable or limited references. This explains the fact that pronouns are used very frequently and form a considerable part of any text; though as a class of words they are not numerous.

But the role of pronouns is much greater than it can be inferred from the meaning of the word pronoun. It is not always that a pronoun is substituted for a noun. For in­stance, what noun does the pronoun it replace in It rains? But what is more important, pronouns can be substituted not only for nouns, but for other parts of speech as well. Traditionally, pronouns are divided into 'noun pronouns' and 'adjective pronouns'. In reality pronouns may also be used instead of numerals (Cf. twenty books — several books, many books) and adverbs (here, there, now, then). Using the prefix pro- in its meaning "instead of", we may, therefore, classify pronouns with regard to the parts of speech into pro-nouns, pro-adjectives, pro-numerals and pro-adverbs.

Thus, pronouns are a collection of words correlated with different parts of speech, which accounts for their not being united by any morphological categories or syntactical func­tions.

§ 141. Sometimes a pronoun is correlated with one part of speech only. But very often this is not so. In a part of speech, as we know, variants of the same lexeme may belong to different subclasses. The peculiarity of pronouns is that variants of the same lexeme may be correlated with different parts of speech. This in the sentence Is this the bike? (Saroyan) is a pro-noun, while in the sentence He gave me this bike? (Ib.) it is a pro-adjective. Here in He lives here is a pro-adverb, but in from here to Moscow it is a pro-noun.

§ 142. As pointed out by A. I. Smirnitsky, the bounda­ries of pronouns and those parts of speech with which they are correlated are rather fluid. The word this in this bike may be regarded both as an adjective pronoun and as a pro­nominal adjective, the word here — as a pronominal adverb and as an adverbial pronoun.

The relative references of the words to-day, yesterday, to-morrow are somewhat akin to those of pronouns, yet they are not relative enough because the words denote definite units of time, days. Cf. now or then.

It is no wonder, therefore, that there exist many words which are regarded as pronouns by some authors and as nouns or adjectives by others.

§ 143. Since pronouns form a class chiefly on the basis of their semantical peculiarities, it is but natural that the subdivision of pronouns into groups should be carried out on the same basis, though some grammatical peculiarities of each group are also taken into consideration.

Pronouns may be divided into

1) personal,

2) possessive,

3) reflexive,

4) demonstrative,

5) interrogative,

6) connective,

7) reciprocal,

8) indefinite,

9) negative,

10) generalizing,

11) quantitative,

12) contrasting.

It must be borne in mind, however, that a pronoun may belong to more than one group at the same time. The pro­noun whose may be treated as interrogative (or connective) and possessive. The pronouns one, one's, oneself may be grouped together as indefinite personal, or they may be classified separately: one as personal, one's as possessive, oneself as reflexive, etc.

Personal Pronouns