Text 2: liberalism and conservatism

Any account of political ideologies must start with liberalism. This is because liberalism is, in effect, the ideology of the industrialised West, and is sometimes portrayed as a meta — ideology that is capable of embracing a broad range of rival values and beliefs. Although liberalism did not emerge as a developed political creed until the early nineteenth century, distinctively liberal theories and principles had gradually been developed during the previous 300 years.

The central theme of classical liberalism is a commitment to an extreme form of individualism. The state is regarded as a 'necessary evil'. It is 'necessary' in that, at the very least, it establishes order and security. However, it is 'evil' in that it imposes a collective will upon society, thus limiting the freedom and responsibilities of the individual. In the form of economic liberalism, this position is

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¹ John M. Keynes (1883-1946) - UK economist, established the discipline now known as macroeconomics, provided the theoretical basis for the policy of demand management.

underpinned by a deep faith in the mechanisms of the free market and the belief that the economy works best when left alone by government.

Modem liberalism is characterised by a more sympathetic attitude towards state intervention. Modern liberals abandoned their belief in laissez-faire capitalism, largely as a result of J.M. Keynes¹ insight that growth and prosperity could only be maintained through a system of managed or regulated capitalism, with key economic responsibilities being placed in the hands of the state.

Neoliberalism is an updated version of classical political economy. The central pillars of neoliberalism are the market and the individual. The principal neoliberal goal is to 'roll back the frontiers of the state', in the belief that unregulated market capitalism will deliver efficiency, growth and widespread prosperity. In this view, the 'dead hand' of the state saps initiative and discourages enterprise; government, however well intentioned, invariably has a damaging effect upon human affairs. This is reflected in the liberal New Right's concern with the politics of ownership, and its preference for private enterprise over state enterprise or nationalisation. The nanny state is seen to breed a culture of dependency and to undermine freedom, which is understood as freedom of choice in the market place. Instead, faith is placed in self-help, individual responsibility and entrepreneurial ism.

Conservative ideas and doctrines first emerged in the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century as a reaction against growing pace of economic and political change.

From the very outset, divisions in conservative thought were apparent. In continental Europe, a form of conservatism emerged that was characterised by the attitude rejecting out of hand any idea of reform. A more flexible, more cautious, and ultimately more successful form of conservatism developed in the UK and the USA that was characterised by belief in 'change in order to conserve'. This stance enabled conservatives to embrace the cause of social reform under the paternalistic banner of 'One Nation'.

The New Right represents a departure in conservative thought that amounts to a kind of counter-revolution against both the postwar drift towards state intervention and spread of libera] or progressive social values. However, the New Right does not so much constitute a coherent and systematic philosophy as an attempt to marry two distinct traditions usually termed 'neoliberalism' and 'neoconservatism'.

Neoconservatism reasserts nineteenth-century conservative social principles. The conservative New Right wishes, above all, to restore authority and return to traditional values, notably those linked to the family, religion and the nation. Authority is seen as guaranteeing social stability, while shared values and common culture are believed lo generate social cohesion and make civilised existence possible. The enemies of neoconservatism are therefore permissiveness, the cult of the self. Another aspect of neoconservatism is the tendency to view i he emergence of multicultural and multireligious societies with concern, on the basis that they are conflict-ridden and inherently unstable. It is sceptical about both immigration and the growing influence of supranational bodies such as the United Nations and the European Union.

AFTER-READING activity

♦ Read the text in more depth to do the «After-reading exercises*

Ex. 1. Comprehension questions:

i Why must any account of political ideologies start with liberalism?

.'. Why is the state regarded as a 'necessary evil'?

* What characterises 'economic liberalism'?

•t What is a distinctive feature of 'modern liberalism'? ^s What does 'neoliberalism' aim at?

f> Why does government, however well intentioned, have a

damaging effect upon human affairs? '.' What is a 'nanny state' like?

x What were the 'plusses' and 'minuses' of different forms of conservatism formed in continental Europe and in the UK, and the USA?

What is the New Right philosophy? in What are the distinct aspects of neoconservatism?

Ex. 2. Terminology:

Look through the three sets of principles/elements and decide which ideology they belong to: Socialism, Liberalism, Anarchism or i 'onservatjsm.

V

i Individualism reflects a belief in supreme importance of human individual as opposed to any social group or collective body.

2. Freedom arises from a belief in the individual and desire to ensure that each person is able to act as he or she pleases or chooses. But ^freedom under law» is advocated, as it is recognised that one person's liberty may be a threat to the liberty of others.

3. Equality implies a belief in fundamental equality, that is individuals are «born equal*.

4. Toleration, the willingness of people to allow others to speak, to think and act in ways of which they disapprove.

5. Consent. Government must be based on the consent of the governed.

6. Constitutionalism - belief in limited government which can be attained through establishment of a codified or 'written' constitution that defines the relationship between the state and individual.

B.

1. Tradition is respect for established customs, and institutions that have endured through time. It has the virtue of promoting stability and security.

2. Pragmatism, the belief that actions should be shaped by practical circumstances and practical goals, that is by 'what works'.

3. Hierarchy, gradation of social position and status is natural and inevitable in an organic society.

4. Authority is always exercised 'from above', providing leadership, guidance and support for those who lack the knowledge, experience or education to act wisely in their own interests.

5. Property ownership is vital because it gives people security and a measure of independence from government and it encourages them to respect the law and property of others.

C.

1. Fraternity-'brotherhood'. but broadened in this context to embrace all humans.

2. Equality as a form of egalitarianism. the belief in the primacy of equality over other values.

3. NeejL belief that material benefits should be distributed on the basis of need, rather than on the basis of merit or work.

4. Community, the vision of human being as social creatures linked by the existence of a common humanity.

5. Common ownership as a means of generating broader equality.

♦ Work with the dictionary and consult the text to do ex. 3, 4

Kx. 3. Translate from English into Russian:

Liberalism emerged as a developed political creed; this position is underpinned by a deep faith in the mechanisms of the free market; ihe economy works best when left alone by government; an updated version; the neoliberal goal is to «roll back the frontiers of the state»; io deliver efficiency, growth and widespread prosperity; to sap initiative; such divisions were apparent; to embrace the cause of social ii'lbrm; a departure in conservative thought; to constitute a coherent .ind systematic philosophy; to generate social cohesion; conflict-nilden and inherently unstable.

Kx. 4. Translate from Russian into English:

Объять широкий спектр противоположных ценностей и убе­ждений; приверженность крайней форме индивидуализма; навя-i;ub обществу коллективную волю; вмешательство государства; фундаментальные (основополагающие блоки); порождать ижди-кемчество; более осторожная и гибкая форма консерватизма; под патерналистским знаменем; соединить две различные тен-ичщии; недоверчиво (пессимистически) относиться к ч-л.

Kx. 5. Fill in the gaps in column 'A* with the topical vocabulary imiis from column 'B\ making all necessary changes

A. B.

I This law ... for a few a. to trace something back,

months but mass media account

b. to be in effect

have made no comments, yet,

2. The witness gave his

evidence at the trial and

c. to take it into account

the jury ... v ... the history of political

ideologies the scientists

came to the conclusion

that any ... of political

ideologies must start with

d. to promote

liberalism. I Although liberalism did

not emerge as a developed

political creed until the

XIX century liberal

Ex. 6. Fill in the blanks with either 'economic¹ or leconomicar

1

The ... and political change was symbolised by the French revolution.

2. An ... creed developed that condemned all forms of government intervention.

3. A form of social liberalism emerged which looked more favorably on the state's ... intervention.

4. Economy must be ...

5. We believe that economy works best when the approach to spending is most ...

6. Conservative ideas rose as a reaction against the growing pace of ... and political change.

Ex. 7. Use the correct form of the Participle

1. While (to assert) the virtues of his own project he still felt (to commit) to the project (to approve) by the government.

theories ... during the previous 300 years.

5. ... liberalism appeared ... the break down of feudalism and ... of a market capitalist society.

6. Liberalism started ... more influence and importance.

7. Later on it attacked absolutism and ... a constitutional government.

8. By the early XIX century liberalism was capable of...

9. We can justifiably ... that neoliberalism is an updated version of classical political economy and it is not ... for its goal is 'to roll back the frontiers of the state'.

10. More and more politicians... the idea that state-interventionalism has become the characteristic theme of modern liberalism.

e. to accumulate

f. from the very outset, on account of, the promotion

g. to assert, a mere assertion

h. to impose

i. to assert oneself

j, to abandon oneself to

¹ The fact of barbarous bombing (to assert) by the speaker was in

the focus of attention, i. The orator (to assert) that fact belongs to the Labour Party, t (To assert) his government involvement in the talks the MP

passed over to bringing the idea home to the audience. \ (To assert) at the proper moment, the fact was not difficult to

realize and respond to.

Kx. 8. Paraphrase the parts in bold type, using: Participle I (Perfect form, active).

1 After he had committed a grave mistake, he became aware of it and corrected it.

1 When they had accumulated experience, they offered a number

of interesting programs for consideration. < As he hadn't received a promotion he could not but abandon his

job.

1 As he had never taken that fact into account he was very much surprised to discover how much it meant to other people.

Participle II.

l The matter which was discussed at the conference will be taken for further considerations.

As the plan was not agreed upon it was sent back to the Committee.

! They drew our attention to the motion which was tabled at that

session.

I. He asked for additional explanation as he was not satisfied with

the answer.

Ex. 9. Translate into Russian, paying attention to different functions of Participles in the sentences:

A. The Absolute Participle construction

l Models of democracy that have been constructed on the basis of liberal individualism have usually proposed that democracy be restricted to political life, with politics being narrowly defined. People are seen as having a basic right to participate in the making of any decisions that affect their lives, with democracy simply being the collective process through which this is done.

- Government can be understood to include any mechanism through which ordered rule is maintained, its central features being the ability to make collective decisions and capacity to enforce them.

4. ¹ (leorg W.F. Hegel (1770-1831) - German philosopher, was the ("limier of modern idealism, developed the notion that consciousness and Mi.Mi'iпiil objects are in fact unified.

   Growth and prosperity can only be maintained through a system of managed or regulated capitalism, with key economic responsibilities being placed in the hands of the state.

5. With everyone asking 'What sort of European Commission do we want?', it was hard not to ask simultaneously 'What sort of Europe do we want?'

6. With the Conservative party as deeply divided as ever on Europe, its young leader still can't end the debate.

7. With his impeachment trial over, the President found himself more easily able to involve himself in foreign policy.

Б. Conjunctions, Prepositions

1. What gives voting its democratic character, however, is that, provided that the election is competitive, it empowers the public to 'kick the rascals out' and it thus makes politicians publicly accountable.

2. General will is the genuine interests of a collective body, equivalent to the common good; the will of all, provided each person acts selflessly.

3. Today most people in rich countries assume that, provided they obey the law, they have the right to enjoy privacy whenever it suits them.

4. The Security Council voted unanimously to end the UN peacekeeping mission in Angola, following the collapse of the peace accords.

5. Brazil will allow its currency to trade freely, following last week's failed attempt at a limited devaluation.

6. To-day's inflation report from the Bank of England shows that, following the government's tough action to get economy back on track, growth is set to strengthen through next year with inflation falling to its 2.5 per cent target.

7. Founder and Guru of Aum (organisation) was thrown in jail pending the outcome of a trial that could drag on for years.

8. Assuming that the second chamber of Great Britain continues to be excluded from debating financial measures, should it have a special role in other areas, for instance, on constitutional Bills?

Ex. 10. Translate into English, using Participle constructions and topical vocabulary:

1. Обеспечивая социальную справедливость, находящаяся у власти партия завоевывает еще большую популярность.

2. Являясь гарантом Конституции страны, президент должен обеспечивать соблюдение прав национальных меньшинств.

Оратор, выступавший за гарантии личных свобод, отражал точку зрения большинства своей партии.

1 Последние шаги, способствующие сохранению экономиче­ского роста и благополучия государства, встречают все большее одобрение народа.

\ Не сделав акнент на своей поправке, он тем самым не га­рантировал ее рассмотрение на следующем заседании.

f>. Обменяшнись приветствиями, делегации приступили к от­четам о проделанной работе.

7. Услышав такое заявление, делегация покинула зал.

s. Проследив историю развития идеологий, докладчик вер­нулся к основной мысли своего сообщения. Признанный виновным продолжал утверждать, что престу­пления не совершал.

|П. Все новые гарантированные права и свободы являются дальнейшим развитием демократии.

Кх. 11. Use the Present Perfect: Active or Passive? Translate the sentences into Russian

I Neoliberals ... (to proclaim) their main goal «roll back the frontiers of the state* in the belief that unregulated market capitalism will deliver efficiency, growth and widespread prosperity.

2. The conservative New Right ideas ... (to bring to life) by wishes to restore authority and return to traditional values, notably I hose linked to the family, religion and the nation.

< Since late nineteenth century onwards, a reformist socialist tradition ... (to reflect) the gradual integration of the working classes into capitalist society.

■» This brand of reformist socialism always ... (to stand for) the possibility of a peaceful, gradual and legal transition to socialism, brought about through the adoption of the 'parliamentary road'.

^ Modern Marxism ... (to influence) by Hegelian¹ ideas and by the stress upon «Man the creator* found in Marx's early writings. Anarchism is unusual amongst political ideologies in that no ;marchist party ... (to succeed) in winning power, at least at national level.

7. The anarchist preference for a stateless society ... (to develop) on the basis of liberal individualism and SQcialiSl communitarianism.

8. Feminist aspirations ... (to express) in societies dating back to Ancient China.

9. The underlying theme of feminism ... (to become): first, that societies characterised by sexual or gender inequality and, second, that this structure of male power can and should be overturned.

10. environmentallsm reflects concern about the damage which ... (to do) to the natural world by the increasing pace of economic development and anxiety about the declining quality of human existence.

11. Two contrasting explanations ... (to advance) to explain resurgence of religious fundamentalism at the end of the XX-th century: one views it as a symptom of the adjustment to a modern and secularised culture: the second suggests that it is a consequence of the failure that secularism ... (to face) in satisfying the human desire for 'higher' or 'spiritual' truth.

12. In many respects, fascism constitutes a revolt against the ideas and values that ... (to dominate) western political thought since the French revolution.

13. Not ah fascists think alike. Some always ... (to support) an extreme form of statism that is based on unquestionable respect and loyalty towards a totalitarian state. Others ... (to advocate) racialism, a master race which is destined for world domination.

Ex. 12. Translate into English:

A.

• политическая система государства

• роль государства и его взаимоотношения с партиями и об­щественными организациями

• разработка и проведение в жизнь государственной полити­ки

• формы и методы управления

• участие различных социальных классов и слоев в политике

• регулирование общественно-политических отношений

• положение личности

• вопросы демократии (народовластие, равенство, свобода)

• вмешательство (участие) государства в экономику

• всеобщая система предоставления социальных благ

• общество социального благоденствия

и

Политическая наука (или теория) концентрирует свое вни­мание главным образом на традиционных научных про­блемах, касающихся политических понятий и категорий, политических закономерностей и тенденций, политических принципов, норм, традиций, идей, убеждений, тогда как (where as) политическая практика держит в поле зрения (to ;iim at, to encompass) деятельность конкретных политиче­ских институтов.

Социальная демократия ассоциируется с явным желанием придать капитализму «человеческое лицо* через вмеша-гельство государства. Предполагается, что Кейнсианская ■жономическая политика обеспечит полную занятость, смешанная экономика поможет государственным институ­там управления регулировать экономическую активность, а всеобщая система предоставления социальных благ, фи­нансируемая через прогрессивное налогообложение, сокра­тит разрыв между бедными и богатыми. < Критики социальной демократии утверждают, что защищая общинную форму бытия, эта идеология, вместо того, чтобы стать движущей силой социальных изменений, преврати­лась в главную опору существующих форм жизни (... has turned into ... rather than become...).

Y.\. 13. Translate into Russian, paying attention to different uses of this/these; that/those

I This power of authority is based on the power of an individual's

personality, thai is, on his or her 'charisma'. .' He did ibis by constructing three ideal types or conceptual

models.

¹ These ideal types amount to three kinds of authority.

t Weber¹ sought to understand the transformation of society itself, contrasting the systems of domination found in relatively simple traditional societies with those typically found in industrial and highly bureaucratic ones.

¹ Max Weber (1864-1920) - German political economist and

' H-jologist.

^ Important differences between postcommunist states can be identified. The most crucial of these is that between the more industrially advanced and westernised countries of 'central' Europe and the more backward 'eastern' states.

6. ¹ Francis Fukuyama (bom 1952) — US social analyst and political . (immentator, claimed that the history of ideas had ended with the n'eognitioii of Liberal democracy as the final form of human government.

   lhat form of authority, traditional authority, is based on the long-established customs and traditions.

7. Typically, it operates according to a body of concrete rules, that is, fixed and unquestionable customs, that do not need to be justified.

8. The wide-spread popular hostility did not amount to a loss of legitimacy, in the sense that it didn't call the rightfulness of the political system into question.

9. As political 'insiders', parties are tainted by the power, ambition and corruption that is often associated with high office.

10. Why should citizens feel obliged to acknowledge the authority of government? Do they have the duty to respect the state and obey its laws? In modern political debate legitimacy addresses not the question of why the people should obey the state, but the question of why they do obey a particular state or system of rule. This/that reflects a shift from philosophy to sociology, but it also highlights the contested nature of the concept of legitimacy.

Ex. 14. Translate into English