Unit IV

Assignments:

1.Read and translate the text.

Fields Of Political Science

In the United States, political science is generally divided into six main fields: (1) political theory and philosophy, (2) comparative government, (3) international relations, (4) American government and politics, (5) public administration, and (6) political behavior.

Political theory and philosophy are usually dealt with historically. Most political scientists believe that the history of political thought forms the basis of all political studies. They consider the reading of great books on political theory and philosophy to be essential for a broad education in politics. The writers of these works include Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Saint Augustine, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Niccolo Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke, Montesquieu, Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and Karl Marx. The classic political and philosophical works help political scientists explore and understand many issues of empirical politics (politics based on experience). With this understanding, political scientists can establish generalizations based on verified facts. These generalizations concern such subjects as how power is won or lost and the problems of representative government.

Comparative government. An understanding of political reality may be achieved by comparing the political institutions and practices of two or more countries. Some scholars in comparative government specialize by studying the countries of a particular area of the world.

International relations include diplomacy, international law, and international organization. Since 1945, much emphasis has been placed on the study of the United Nations. Vital forces in the modern world, including imperialism and nationalism, are also important subjects of international relations. In addition, this field of political science deals with defense policies and with problems connected with peace and war. The effects of economic pressures on international relations are studied as well.

American government and politics is a field of political science only in the United States. In Canada, the study of Canadian government and politics would take its place. Political scientists generally give special attention to their own country's government. The U.S. government has a federal system. Study of the American government deals with national, state, and local government and politics. American political scientists have made notable progress in arriving at realistic understandings of Congress, the presidency, and the Supreme Court. They have also studied federal government agencies, large corporations, interest groups, the mass media, and other centers of economic and social power. Political scientists have gained important insight into how these groups influence national decision making.

Public administration is actually part of comparative government and of American government and politics. It is separated from those fields because of the range and complications of modern administrative activities. Public administration deals with such tasks of public officials as accounting, budgets, and personnel management. Public officials often work closely with political scientists who are experts in administration. These experts study the departments of the federal, state, and local governments. They analyze how the organization and internal politics of these departments aid or hinder putting political decisions and programs into effect.

Political behavior is the field that explores the way people respond to certain political conditions or influences. For example, the political scientist may take note of how many voters favor a candidate who looks good on television. Behavioral studies are a recent trend in political science. They have been influenced by developments in such behavioral sciences as anthropology, psychology, and sociology. Political scientists have developed ways to study certain key behavior patterns in politics. Studies have been made in communications, propaganda, voting behavior, and other activities.

2. Study the following phrases. Recall the sentences in which they are used in the text. Use them when retelling the unit.

comparative [kqm'pxrqtIv] (порівняльний) = 1. Relating to, based on, or involving comparison. 2. Estimated by comparison; relative: a comparative newcomer. 3. Grammar. Of, relating to, or being the intermediate degree of comparison of adjectives, as better, sweeter, or more wonderful, or adverbs, as more softly. 4. Linguistics. a. Of or relating to the synchronic typological comparison of languages. b. Of or relating to the comparison of languages descended from a common ancestor: comparative historical linguistics.

essential [I'senS(q)l] (істотний, суттєвий) = 1.Something fundamental. 2. Something necessary or indispensable.

с) explore [Ik'splO:] (дослідити, з’ясовувати, вивчати) = verb, transitive 1.To investigate systematically; examine: explore every possibility. 2. To search into or travel in for the purpose of discovery: exploring outer space. 3. Medicine. To examine for diagnostic purposes. verb, intransitive To make a careful examination or search: scientists who have been known to explore in this region of the earth.

d) verified facts ['verIfaId fxkts] (справжні, перевірені факти) to verify = 1.To prove the truth of by presentation of evidence or testimony; substantiate. 2. To determine or test the truth or accuracy of, as by comparison, investigation, or reference: conducted experiments to verify the hypothesis. See synonyms at confirm. 3. Law. a. To affirm formally or under oath. b. To append a verification to (a pleading); conclude with a verification.

e) generalization ["dZen(q)rqlaI'zeIS(q)n] (узагальнення, загальне правило) = 1. The act or an instance of generalizing. 2. A principle, a statement, or an idea having general application.

Synonyms: correlation, general conclusion; reasoning.

f) representative government (представительное правление, представницький уряд) = a. the members of a governmental body, usually legislative, chosen by popular vote. b. members of the U.S. House of Representatives or of the lower house of a state legislature.

g ) emphasis ['emfqsIs] (наголос) = 1.Special forcefulness of expression that gives importance to something singled out; stress: a lecture on housekeeping with emphasis on neatness; paused for emphasis, then announced the winner's name. 2. Special attention or effort directed toward something: a small-town newspaper's emphasis on local affairs. 3. Prominence given to a syllable, word, or words, as by raising the voice or printing in italic type.

Synonyms: emphasis, accent, stress. The central meaning shared by these nouns is "special weight placed on something considered important": laid a strong emphasis on the study of foreign languages; opposition to nuclear power plants, with the accent on total elimination; lay heavy stress on law and order.

h) effect [I'fekt] (вплив, результат, наслідок) = 1.Something brought about by a cause or an agent; a result. 2. The power to produce an outcome or achieve a result; influence: The drug had an immediate effect on the pain. The government's action had no effect on the trade imbalance. 3. A scientific law, hypothesis, or phenomenon: the photovoltaic effect. 4. Advantage; avail: used her words to great effect in influencing the jury. 5. The condition of being in full force or execution: a new regulation that goes into effect tomorrow. 6. a. Something that produces a specific impression or supports a general design or intention: The lighting effects emphasized the harsh atmosphere of the drama. b. A particular impression: large windows that gave an effect of spaciousness. c. Production of a desired impression: spent lavishly on dinner just for effect. 7. The basic or general meaning; import: He said he was greatly worried, or words to that effect. 8. effects Movable belongings; goods.

to effect = 1. To bring into existence. 2. To produce as a result. 3. To bring about. — idiom. in effect In essence; to all purposes: testimony that in effect contradicted her earlier statement.

Synonyms: effect, consequence, result, outcome, upshot, sequel. These nouns denote something, such as an occurrence, a situation, or a condition, that is brought about by a cause. An effect is produced by the action of an agent or a cause and follows it in time: "Every cause produces more than one effect" (Herbert Spencer). A consequence also follows a cause and is traceable to it, but the relationship between them is less sharply definable: "Servitude is at once the consequence of his crime and the punishment of his guilt" (John P. Curran). A result is an effect, or the last in a series of effects, that is viewed as the end product of the operation of the cause: "Judging from the results I have seen I cannot say that I agree with you" (William H. Mallock). An outcome is a result but more strongly than result implies finality and may suggest the operation of a cause over a relatively long period: If you had refused, the outcome would probably not have been very different. An upshot is a decisive result, often of the nature of a climax: "The upshot of the matter was that she showed both of them the door" (Robert Louis Stevenson). A sequel is a consequence that ensues after a lapse of time: "Our dreams are the sequel of our waking knowledge" (Ralph Waldo Emerson).

i) pressure ['preSq] (економічний тиск) = 1.The application of continuous force by one body on another that it is touching; compression. 2. A compelling or constraining influence, such as a moral force, on the mind or will: pressure to conform; 3. Urgent claim or demand: under the pressure of business; doesn't work well under pressure. 4. An oppressive condition of physical, mental, social, or economic distress.

j) federal ['fed(q)rql] (федеральний) = 1. Of, relating to, or being a form of government in which a union of states recognizes the sovereignty of a central authority while retaining certain residual powers of government. 2. Of or constituting a form of government in which sovereign power is divided between a central authority and a number of constituent political units.

k) insight ['InsaIt] (здібність глибокого проникнення у суть справи)

1. The capacity to discern the true nature of a situation; penetration.

2. The act or outcome of grasping the inward or hidden nature of things or of perceiving in an intuitive manner.

Synonyms: acumen ['xkjVmqn], flair, intelligence

l) complication ["kPmplI'keIS(q)n] (ускладнення) A confused or intricate= (заплутаний) relationship of parts.

hinder ['hIndq] (перешкоджати, заважати)

1. To be or get in the way of. 2. To obstruct or delay the progress of. 3.To interfere with action or progress.

Synonyms: hinder, hamper, impede, obstruct, block, dam, bar.

These verbs mean to slow or prevent progress or movement. To hinder is to hold back, as by delaying: The travelers were hindered by storms throughout their journey. Often the word implies stopping or prevention: What is to hinder you from trying? To hamper is to hinder by or as if by fastening or entangling: A suit and an overcoat hampered the efforts of the accident victim to swim to safety. She was hampered by ill health in building up her business. To impede is to slow by making action or movement difficult: "Sentiment and eloquence serve only to impede the pursuit of truth" (Macaulay). Obstruct implies the presence of obstacles that interfere with progress: A building under construction obstructs our view of the mountains. One of the mugger's accomplices tried to obstruct the police officer from upholding the law. Block refers to complete obstruction that prevents progress, passage, or action: A huge snowdrift is blocking the entrance to the driveway. "Do not block the way of inquiry" (Charles S. Peirce). Dam suggests obstruction of the flow, progress, or release of something, such as water or emotion: dammed the brook to form a swimming pool; dammed up his emotions. To bar is to prevent entry or exit or prohibit a course of action: mounted troops barring access to the presidential palace; laws that bar price fixing.