Understanding the Human Machine - A Primer for Bioengineering - Max E. Valentinuzzi
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International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering, 3
interstitial fluid, 54 intracellular fluid, 54
Intracrine secretion, 161 intraventricular pressure, 260 inverse stretch reflex, 215 ionic channels, 65
Islets of Langerhans, 182 Isolation, 343
J
jet-lag, 194 Johnson noise, 340
K
Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert, 131
Koestler, 8
Kouwenhoven, William, 7
Krogh, August, 108
Kussmaul, Adolf, 121
L
Lapicque, Louis, 63 Laplace, Pierre Simon, 24 Laplace’s Law, 24, 25 latency, 57
Laws of the heart, 23 lead vector, 94
left atrium, 18 left ventricle, 17 LH pulses, 173 LHRH, 172 linear system, 359
Understanding the Human Machine
Linearity, 363 Lissajous patterns, 43 loop, 338
loop of Henle, 127 LTH, 172 luminance, 275
M
Magendie, François, 202 magnetic permeability, 244 Magnetic Resonance Imaging,
276
Magnetobiology, 242 magnetocardiogram, 244 magnetoencephalogram, 244,
246
magnetomyogram, 244, 246 Mathematical Biology, 358 Maxwell, James Clerk, 132 Méchain, Pierre, 4
medial cerebrum, 203
Medical Engineering, 2 medulla oblongata, 204 MEL, 105
melatonin, 193 mesencephalon, 203 metathalamus, 203 meter, 4 Microperfusion, 129 Micropuncture, 128 MIL, 105
Mirowski, Michael, 7 mitochondria, 223 mobility, 67 murmurs, 260 muscles spindle, 215
Index
Muscular System, 211 musculoskeletal system, 211 myasthenia gravis, 214, 218 myoneural junction, 213
N
NEL, 105 neopallium, 203 nephron, 128 Nernst equation, 66
Nervous System, 198
Neurohypophysis, 164 neuromuscular junction, 213 Neuromuscular Juntion, 212 neutrality principle, 59 NIL, 105
Noble’s cycle, 76 Noise, 326, 340 non-linear system, 360 non-linearity, 322 noradrenaline, 206, 208
norepinephrine, 206, 208 nuclear envelope, 223
nuclear magnetic resonance, 272 nucleolus, 222
nucleus accumbens septi, 204 Nyquist, H., 273
O
Objectives, 4, 11 Offsets, 325
olfactory tubercle, 204 Oocyte, 234 Optimality, 365 organelles, 221 orthopnea, 116
389
osmoreceptors, 177 Osmosis, 136
Osmotic exchanger, 143
P
pacemaker, 78, 79
Paracrine secretion, 161 parasympathetic, 205 Parkinson, 338 periheral resistance, 17
peritubular capillaries, 128 phase diagrams, 266 phase distortion, 298 phonocardiogram, 257 Phonocardiography, 262 phrenic nerves, 103 piamater, 209
Pineal Gland, 163 plasma membrane, 221 plasmacrit, 55 pneumothorax, 112 Poiseuille’s Law, 17, 21
Poisson distribution, 38 polarization elements, 286 pontine protuberance, 204 popcorn noise, 340 portal blood, 182
positive inotropic effect, 23 Positron Emission Tomography,
276
posterior cerebrum, 203 potassium equilibrium potential,
66 proencephalon, 203 prokaryotes, 221
prokaryotes cells, 221
390
Propagation, 70
proximal convoluted tubule, 127 PTH, 180
Pulmonary Circulation, 115 pulmonary perfusion, 116 pulmonary valve, 18 Purkinje, Jan Evagelista, 74 putamen, 204
PV-loop, 42, 46 pyramidal tract, 199
Q
qualitative stage, 3 Quantification Process, 3 quantitative stages, 3 quantization, 350
R
radiance, 275 Ranvier, 71
Rapid Eye Movement, 228 Rashevsky, Nicholas, 358 Recording Channel, 9 recovery time, 326
red nucleus, 201 reflectance, 274 regional resistance, 21 relative permittivity, 249 releasing hormones, 165 Renal system, 125
Anatomical features, 126 blood flow, 144 Countercurrent
multiplication, 140 Filtration, 132 osmosis, 136
Understanding the Human Machine
processes, 130 Reabsorption, 134 secreted load, 133 Secretion, 133
renin, 188 Renin-Angiotensin-
Cardionatrine System, 163 repolarization, 65 resistivity, 249
resistor’s pairing, 313 Respiration
Alveolar ventilation, 108 capacities and volumes, 104 Compliance, 112
dead space, 106 impedance change, 250 mechanisms, 102 muscles, 102 pressures, 109
Rate, 106 variables, 106
Ventilation, 106 Respiratory Control, 119 Reticular Activating System,
204
reticular formation, 201 retinohypotalamic tract, 192 Reynolds number, 256 rhomboencephalon, 203 Rhythmic arrhythmias, 96 right atrium, 18 rinhoencephalon, 203 RNA, 191, 222
S
Saint Mathesis, 1
Index
saltatory conduction, 72 saturation, 275 Schmitt, Otto, 308
Schottky noise, 340 Schottky, Walter, 341 secretin, 151
Secretion, 150, 160 sensors, 279 sensory tract, 199 serotonin, 208 Seven Lamps, 1 Shelley, Percy, 6
Shockley, William, 308 shot noise, 340
sinus arrhythmia, 95 skeleton, 211 sodium current, 65
sodium equilibrium potential, 66
sodium-potassium pump, 61 soma, 199, 208 Somatostatin, 175 somatotropin, 174
spinal cord, 199 Stability, 364 Starling’s Law, 24 stethoscope, 257
Stop flow technique, 129 stretch reflex, 215 striae, 73
striated body, 203 stroke volume, 17 subarachnoid cilae, 209 substantia nigra, 201
superconducting quantum interference device, 245
391
swallowing, 157 sympathetic, 205 Synapse, 198, 208
T
tachycardia, 99 Tarchanoff, J, 232 telencephalon, 203 tetanic contraction, 263 thalamus, 203
Theory of Humor, 8 thermic noise, 340 threshold potential, 62 threshold stimulus, 63 Thyroid, 165
tidal volume, 106
Tissue engineering, 368 transducers, 279 transducible property, 296 trephanum, 209
twitch, 263
U
ultrasound imaging, 276
V
van 't Hoff, Jacobus Henricus, 140
vascular beds, 18 Veins, 29
ventricular hypertrophy, 95 Vessels, 29
Visual Evoked Potentials, 230 Volta, Alessandro, 6, 78
392
W
Warburg impedance, 287 Warburg, Emil Daniel, 287 wedge pressure, 115
Wheatstone bridge, 299 white noise, 340
Understanding the Human Machine
Wilson, Frank, 93
Witchery, 5
Withering, Williams, 6
Wollaston, Mary, 6
Y
yawning, 101
List of Figures
Figure 1.1. The recording channel ............................................................ |
9 |
Figure 2.1. The organism in block diagram ............................................ |
14 |
Figure 2.2. The circulatory system as a hydraulic series circuit ............. |
17 |
Figure 2.3. The circulatory system and its principal beds ...................... |
20 |
Figure 2.4. Starling’s law of the heart..................................................... |
24 |
Figure 2.5. Laplace’s law........................................................................ |
26 |
Figure 2.6. Fick’s principle..................................................................... |
31 |
Figure 2.7. Hydraulic and simplified model ........................................... |
33 |
Figure 2.8. Actual shape of the dilution curve........................................ |
35 |
Figure 2.9. Constant infusion method to obtain flow ............................. |
37 |
Figure 2.10. Node system to obtain the coronary blood flow or ............ |
39 |
Figure 2.11. Intraventricular volume and pressure records..................... |
42 |
Figure 2.12. Intraventricular volume-pressure diagrams ........................ |
43 |
Figure 2.13. End-systolic line (or Frank–Starling–Suga–Sagawa line).. |
45 |
Figure 2.14. Aortic pressure and aortic flow .......................................... |
48 |
Figure 2.15. Aortic impedance................................................................ |
49 |
Figure 2.16. Body compartments............................................................ |
53 |
Figure 2.17. Model of an excitable tissue. .............................................. |
55 |
Figure 2.18. Membrane resting potential ................................................ |
58 |
Figure 2.19. Action potential and its boundaries .................................... |
60 |
Figure 2.20. Actual action potential........................................................ |
61 |
Figure 2.21. Hodgkin activation cycle.................................................... |
62 |
Figure 2.22. Propagation of the action potential..................................... |
69 |
Figure 2.23. Cardiac action potentials .................................................... |
71 |
Figure 2.24. Noble’s activation cycle ..................................................... |
73 |
Figure 2.25. Permeabilities as time course events .................................. |
75 |
Figure 2.26. Frog’s heart......................................................................... |
76 |
Figure 2.27. Sinus venosus electrical complex. ...................................... |
77 |
Figure 2.28. Sinus venosus electrical complex and other components... |
77 |
Figure 2.29. Full electromechanical correlation of cardiac events ......... |
78 |
Figure 2.30. Conduction system and concept of block........................... |
81 |
Figure 2.31. The normal surface ECG .................................................... |
82 |
Figure 2.32. Genesis of the biphasic action potential ............................. |
84 |
393 |
|
394 |
Understanding the Human Machine |
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Figure 2.33. Electric analog of the cardiac fiber..................................... |
86 |
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Figure 2.34. Einthoven’s electrocardiographic leads.............................. |
88 |
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Figure 2.35. Sinus venosus-atrial block.................................................. |
|
93 |
Figure 2.36. Sinus venosus-atrial block.................................................. |
|
94 |
Figure 2.37. Snake’s ECG ...................................................................... |
|
94 |
Figure 2.38. Snake’s electrogram ........................................................... |
|
95 |
Figure 2.39. Fibrillation–defibrillation ................................................... |
|
96 |
Figure 2.40. Respiratory system ............................................................. |
|
99 |
Figure 2.41. Anteroposterior diameter change...................................... |
100 |
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Figure 2.42. Intercostal and diaphragmatic components ...................... |
101 |
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Figure 2.43. Pulmonary capacities and volumes................................... |
102 |
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Figure 2.44. Bases for the determination of the dead space.................. |
104 |
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Figure 2.45. Generation of a subatmospheric pressure ......................... |
107 |
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Figure 2.46. Intrapleural pressure. ........................................................ |
|
108 |
Figure 2.47. Respiratory pressure-volume diagram.............................. |
111 |
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Figure 2.48. Pulmonary wedge pressure............................................... |
|
112 |
Figure 2.49. Neural control of the respiratory act................................. |
116 |
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Figure 2.50. Functional renal unit: the nephron.................................... |
123 |
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Figure 2.51. Flow diagram of the renal system..................................... |
127 |
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Figure 2.52. The three basic renal processes ........................................ |
|
129 |
Figure 2.53. Mechanism of countercurrent multiplication.................... |
137 |
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Figure 2.54. Schematic of the alimentary canal.................................... |
142 |
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Figure 2.55. Rabbit ileum activity ........................................................ |
|
144 |
Figure 2.56. Beating effect from a rabbit ileum sample........................ |
145 |
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Figure 2.57. Simplified diagram of the splanchnic circulation............. |
149 |
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Figure 2.58. Main secretions of the gis................................................. |
|
148 |
Figure 2.59. Hepatic blood flow determination. ................................... |
150 |
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Figure 2.60. Mesenteric blood flow regulation..................................... |
154 |
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Figure 2.61. Hypothalamus-adenohypophysis-thyroid relationship ..... |
161 |
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Figure 2.62. Hypothalamus-adenohypophysis-adrenal cortex system..163 |
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Figure 2.63. Hypothalamic-adenohypophyseal-gonads system............ |
165 |
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Figure 2.64. Growth endocrine system ................................................. |
|
169 |
Figure 2.65. The hypothalamic-neurohypophyseal system .................. |
171 |
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Figure 2.66. The adrenal medulla system. ............................................ |
|
172 |
Figure 2.67. Splanchnic stimulation ..................................................... |
|
173 |
Figure 2.68. Calcium regulation system ............................................... |
|
175 |
List of Figures |
395 |
Figure 2.69. Glucose regulation............................................................ |
177 |
Figure 2.70. Renin-angiotensin-cardionatrine system .......................... |
181 |
Figure 2.71. Physiological circadian rhythm ........................................ |
183 |
Figure 2.72. Higher and spinal centers ................................................. |
193 |
Figure 2.73. The stretch and the inverse stretch reflexes...................... |
208 |
Figure 2.74. Sites of disease along the motor unit ................................ |
209 |
Figure 3.1. Electro-oculogram .............................................................. |
220 |
Figure 3.2. Electroretinogram ............................................................... |
221 |
Figure 3.3. Electrodermogram .............................................................. |
225 |
Figure 3.4. Electrical block to polyspermy in sea urchin eggs ............. |
226 |
Figure 3.5. Electromyogram. ................................................................ |
230 |
Figure 3.6. Electroencephalogram ........................................................ |
232 |
Figure 3.7. EEGs during different cerebral conditions ......................... |
233 |
Figure 3.8. Magnetocardiogram............................................................ |
237 |
Figure 3.9. Magnetomyogram............................................................... |
238 |
Figure 3.10. Magnetoencephalogram.................................................... |
239 |
Figure 3.11. The impedancimetric signal.............................................. |
240 |
Figure 3.12. Respiration recorded with impedance .............................. |
243 |
Figure 3.13. Arterial blood pressure ..................................................... |
244 |
Figure 3.14. Blood pressure as a time course event.............................. |
245 |
Figure 3.15. Set of signals from the CVS ............................................. |
246 |
Figure 3.16. Phonocardiograms ............................................................ |
249 |
Figure 3.17. First and second heart sounds........................................... |
251 |
Figure 3.18. Systolic murmur ............................................................... |
251 |
Figure 3.19. Skeletal muscle contraction .............................................. |
254 |
Figure 3.20. Cardiograms ..................................................................... |
255 |
Figure 4.1. Electrode-electrolyte interface equivalent circuit............... |
278 |
Figure 4.2. Interface reactance Xi vs frequency .................................... |
280 |
Figure 4.3. Roughened platinum wire tip ............................................. |
281 |
Figure 4.4. Interface impedance modulus versus applied current......... |
283 |
Figure 4.5. Basic system to measure pH of a solution .......................... |
286 |
Figure 4.6. Interface capacitance Ci growth curves .............................. |
287 |
Figure 4.7. Wheatstone bridge configuration........................................ |
291 |
Figure 5.1. Basic operational amplifier: single inverter........................ |
301 |
Figure 5.2. Balanced differential amplifier........................................... |
303 |
Figure 5.3. Loading effect of the input impedance of the amplifier. .... |
304 |
396 |
Understanding the Human Machine |
Figure 5.4. Two Op-Amp biological amplifier. .................................... |
307 |
Figure 5.5. Differential amplifier based on three Op-Amp................... |
310 |
Figure 5.6. Transfer function illustrating non-linearity. ....................... |
315 |
Figure 5.7. Conductively coupled noise. |
320 |
Figure 5.8. Inductive coupling .............................................................. |
321 |
Figure 5.9. Capacitive coupling, a pathway ............................to noise |
322 |
Figure 5.10. Interference picked up by an . ......................ECG system |
324 |
Figure 5.11. Model to analyze capacitive .............................pathways |
325 |
Figure 5.12. Magnetically coupled noise.............................................. |
328 |
Figure 5.13. Ground loops .................................................................... |
331 |
Figure 5.14. Isolation amplifier ............................................................ |
334 |
Figure 6.1. Myocardial infarction ......................................................... |
338 |
Figure 6.2. Bundle branch block........................................................... |
339 |
Figure 6.3. Concept of sampling........................................................... |
341 |
Author’s Biographical Note
Born in Buenos Aires in 1932, he obtained the Bachelor degree from the National College of Buenos Aires (1950), and graduated as Telecommunications Engineer at the University of Buenos Aires (1956). Later, he earned a Ph.D. in Physiology and Biophysics from Baylor College of Medicine (USA, 1969), where he also became Assistant Professor (1969–73). Professor of Bioengineering and Head of Laboratory (1972–2001) at the Universidad Nacional de Tucumán (UNT) and Career Investigator (1977–2000) of the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina, where he currently continues under a contract.
Cofounder and first director (1980–7) of the Instituto Superior de Investigaciones Biológicas (INSIBIO). Director of the Master of Bioengineering Program at the UNT (1996-2003). In 1973, he shared the Nightingale Prize of Bioengineering (IFMBE & BES), in 1980 the Houssay Prize of Biology (Sociedad Argentina de Biología) and, in 1985, the Catalina B. de Barón Accesit Prize of Cardiology (CORDIC, Buenos Aires). In 1984, he was awarded the Golden Route Prize in Science (Sociedad de Distribuidores de Diarios, Buenos Aires). The IEEE/EMBS gave him the 1996 Career Achievement Award. He is a Life Fellow Member of the IEEE, Member of the American Physiological Society, the Institution of Physics and Engineering in Biology and Medicine (England), the Sociedad Científica Argentina and the Sociedad Argentina de Bioingeniería. In 1989, he was inducted into the Argentine National Academy of Engineering, in 1990, into the Córdoba Academy of Medical Sciences, and in September 1997, into the International Academy for Medical and Biological Engineering. He authored or coauthored over 90 scientific and technical papers and more than 30 teaching and/or general articles, has collaborated in 8 books and was guest editor to 5 special issues of scientific journals. For different length periods, he lectured at several US and Latin American universities acting, also, in the editorial boards of Medical Progress through Technology (1979–1994) and Medical Engineering & Physics (1989; Associate Editor, 2001-3) and helping, now and then, as referee to other journals. Besides, he was Latin American Representative to IFMBE (1988–1991) and also to IEEE/EMBS (1988–1991). Between1991 and 1994, he was President to the Latin American Regional Council of Biomedical Engineering (CORAL). He has worked in the fields of bioimpedance, cardiovascular system, impedance microbiology, fibrillationdefibrillation, numerical deconvolution and biomedical engineering education. Max loves his students, likes children, animals and music (plays piano). He enjoys a simple outdoors life. Being is much better than having.