Oxford_Guide_to_English_Grammar

PAGE 365 280 The relative pronoun what

278 Which relating to a clause

Which can relate to a whole clause, not just to a noun.

The team has lost all its matches, which doesn't surprise me.

(= The fact that the team has lost all its matches doesn't surprise me.)

Anna and Matthew spent the whole time arguing, which annoyed Laura. Iget paid a hit more now, which means I can afford to run a car.

In this pattern the relative clause with which is an adding clause. We normally put a comma before which. We cannot use that or what instead of which in this pattern.

279 Relative adverbs

1 There are relative adverbs where, when and why.

The house where I used to live has been knocked down.

Do you remember the time when we all went to a night club? The reason why I can't go is that I don't have time.

We use where after nouns like place, house, street, town, country. We use when after nouns like time, period, moment, day, summer. We use why after reason.

NOTE

We can use where and when without a noun.

Where I used to live has been knocked down.

Do you remember when we all went to a night club?

2 Instead of a clause with where, we can often use one with a preposition.

The house (that) I used to live in has been knocked down.

We can leave out when or why, or we can use that instead.

Do you remember the time (that) we all went to a night club?

The reason (that) I can't go is that I don't have time.

3 Clauses with where and when can be adding or connective clauses.

We walked up to the top ofthe hill, where we got a marvellous view. Can't we go next week, when I won't be so busy?

We cannot leave out where or when here, and we cannot use that.

280 The relative pronoun what

We can use what in this pattern.

We'd better write a list of what we need to pack.

(= the things that we need to pack)

I was going to buy a new coat, but I couldn't find what I wanted.

(= the thing that I wanted)

But vhat cannot relate to a noun. NOT the coat whatI wanted

We can use what in indirect speech. • 269(3)

I told you what we need to pack.

We can also use what in a special pattern to emphasize a phrase. • 51 (4)

What we need to pack is just a few clothes.

281 Whoever, whatever and whichever

Look at these examples.

Whoever designed this building ought to be shot.

(= the person who designed this building - no matter who it is)

I'll spend my money on whatever I like.

(= the thing that I like - no matter what it is)

Whichever date we choose will be inconvenientfor some of us.

(= the date that we choose - no matter which it is)

We cannot use who in this pattern.

NOT Who-dcsigned this building ought to be shot.

But we can use what. • 280

For whoever etc in another pattern, • 254.

It is often difficult to tell the difference between a compound noun and two single nouns. For details about two nouns together, • 147.

NOTE

A few compound nouns are formed from an adjective and noun. Compare these patterns. Compound noun: a 'darkroom (= a room for developing photos)

Adjective + noun: a dark 'room (= a room that is dark)

Other such compound nouns are greenhouse, blackboard, shorthand, hotplate.

2 Gerund + noun

We can use a gerund to classify a noun, to say what type it is or what its purpose is.

We often use a hyphen. We stress the gerund, e.g. the 'dining-room.

NOTE

Compare a gerund and participle.

Gerund: a 'sleeping pill (= a pill for helping you to sleep)

Participle: a sleeping 'child (= a child who is sleeping)

5 Compounds with numbers

We can use a number + noun to modify another noun.

a three-day visit a six-mile journey a car with four-wheel drive

The noun is singular: NOT a three days visit. But for a three days' visit, • 146(5). We can also say a visit ofthree days.

We can also use a number + noun + adjective.

a three-day-old baby a hundred-yard-long queue

284 Prefixes

A prefix comes at the beginning of a word. It adds something to the meaning.

1 Here are some common prefixes.

6 Adverbs

We form many adverbs from an adjective + ly, e.g. quickly. • 207

286 Vowel and consonant changes

1 Sometimes two related words have a different vowel sound.

It was very hot. We couldfeel the heat.

Also: blood bleed,food feed,full fill, lose loss, proud pride, sell sale, shoot shot, sing song, sit seat, tell tale

287 Words belonging to more than one class

1 Many words can be both verbs and nouns.

Some words of this kind are answer, attack, attempt, call, care, change, climb, control, copy, cost, damage, dance, delay, doubt, drink, drive, experience, fall, help, hit, hope, interest,joke, laugh, look, love, need, promise, rest, ride, run, search, sleep, smile, sound, swim, talk, trouble, visit, wait, walk, wash, wish.

NOTE For We swim/We have a swim, • 87.

2Some verbs and nouns differ in their stress. The verb is usually stressed on the second syllable, and the noun is stressed on the first.

Verb: How do you trans'port the goods? Noun: What 'transport do you use?

The stress can make a difference to the vowel sounds. For example, progress as a verb is and as a noun

Some words ofthis kind are conflict, contest, contrast, decrease, discount, export, import, increase, insult, permit, produce, progress, protest, rebel, record, refund, suspect, transfer, transport.

NOTE For nouns formed from phrasal verbs, e.g. hold-up, •231(7).

Some concrete nouns can also be verbs.

He pocketed the money. (= put it in his pocket) We've wallpapered this room. (= put wallpaper on it) The man was gunned down. (= shot with a gun)

The goods were shipped to America. (= taken by ship)

Some others are bottle (wine), box, brake, butter (bread), garage (a car), glue, hammer, mail, oil, parcel, (tele)phone.

Some adjectives can also be verbs.

This wind will soon dry the clothes. (= make them dry) The clothes will soon dry. (= become dry)

Some words of this kind are calm, cool, dry, empty, narrow, smooth, warm, wet.

NOTE Some adjectives with similar meanings take en as verbs, e.g. widen. • 285(4b)

b As the name of a language

I learnt Italian at evening classes. Do you speak Russian?

I don't know any Greek.

cReferring to a specific person or group of people

Debbie is married to an Italian.

There are some Russians staying at the hotel. TheJapanese were looking round the cathedral.

dReferring to a whole people

Italians are passionate aboutfootball.

The French are proud oftheir language.

These expressions take a plural verb.

We can also say e.g. Italian people, Russian people.