Oxford_Guide_to_English_Grammar

c Some adverbs go in end position when they modify a verb.

During the speech my attention wandered a lot. This tooth aches terribly.

These are a lot, very much; a bit, a little, slightly; somewhat; terribly, awfully; more, (the) most.

dWe can use much or very much in a negative sentence or question, but we cannot use much on its own in a positive statement.

Negative: I don't like this sweater much/very much.

Positive: I like this sweater very much. NOT I like this sweater much.

8 Modifying a quantifier

We can use these patterns.

a very/so/too + many/much/few/little There were so many people there.

b such/rather/quite + a lot (of)

There were such a lot of people there. We've had rather a lot ofcomplaints.

c quite + afew/a bit (of)

We've had quite afew complaints.

d almost/nearly + all/every

Almost all the pudding had been eaten.

e hardly any

There was hardly any pudding left.

f a lot/much/a bit/a little/any/no + more/less Would you like a bit more pudding?

NOTE

We can use much, far or rather to modify too.

You've putfar too much salt in.

213 Focus and viewpoint

1 Focus adverbials

We sometimes use an adverb to focus on a particular word or phrase.

Emily works every day, even on Sundays.

I don't like alcohol, especially beer.

NOTE

Compare even and also.

Everyone laughed, even the teacher. (Everyone includes the teacher.)

We've invited the whole class, and also the teacher.

(The whole class does not include the teacher.)

Most of these adverbs can go in front, mid or end position. Certainly, definitely and probably usually go in mid position. But in a negative sentence we put a truth adverb after the subject rather than after the auxiliary.

You certainly haven't wasted any time. Service presumably isn't included.

NOTE For Mandy might have missed the bus, • 97.

2 We can also use a prepositional phrase.

The whole thing is ridiculous in my opinion. Ofcourse I'll pay you back.

We get on quite well together on the whole.

3 We can also use a clause with I.

I think the whole thing is ridiculous. Someone'sfused the lights, I expect. I'm sure you've made a mistake.

215Comment adverbs

1We use this kind of adverb to make a comment on what we are saying Luckily no one was killed. (= It was lucky that no one was killed.)

The newspaper wasn't interested in the story, surprisingly. I'm afraid/Unfortunately we didn't win anything.

2 We can also use an adverb to comment on someone's behaviour. Dick wisely didn't interfere. (= It was wise of Dick not to interfere.)

Compare the adverbs of comment and manner.

I stupidly left the car unlocked. (= It was stupid of me.)

The man stared stupidly. (= in a stupid manner)

3We can use a phrase with to for someone's feelings about something.

To my surprise, the newspaper wasn't interested in the story. To Phil's delight, his plan proved successful.

4We can comment on why we are saying something.

Honestly,/To be honest, I think you're making the wrong decision.

216 Linking adverbs

A linking adverb relates to the previous clause or sentence. It most often goes in front position, but it can go in mid or end position. Here are some real examples.

But the baby does notjust grow bigger and heavier. Its shape and body proportions also change as it grows up.

When Beethoven wasfourteen, he wasforced to give lessons to support his parents. However, he stillfound time to take afew violin lessons, and he went on composing.

If you pay the bill in full within 25 days you won't be charged interest. Otherwise you are charged interest on any balance outstanding.

Some other linking adverbs are as well, too, in addition, furthermore, • 244; nevertheless, on the other hand, • 246; therefore, consequently, as a result, • 247; likewise; instead. They have similar meanings to conjunctions such as and, but, so and if.

2 Here are some other ways of relating one clause or sentence to another.

MIDTOWN MANHATTAN

Midtown Manhattan, which ranges roughly from 34th to 59th Streets and river to river, is a center ofsuperlatives. The biggest buildings, best restaurants, most art galleries, brightest lights, greatest concentration ofbig business, largest complex oftheaters and concert houses, best bargain basements, most exclusive couture houses, and the most specialized services are all here.

(from Fodor's Budget Travel in America)

1 Use

We use these forms to compare the same quality of different things.

Gold is softer than copper. Copper is more durable.

New York is the biggest city in the USA. The most exclusivefashion stores are here.

We can compare, for example, the softness of gold and copper, or the size of New York compared to other cities.

NOTE

a For patterns such as softer than copper, the biggest in the USA, •221.

bThe traditional rule is that we use a comparative (softer, more durable) for two items, and we use the superlative (biggest, most exclusive) for more than two. But in informal English

we often use the superlative to refer to one of only two items.

Which of these two photos is better/best?

2 Form

a These are the regular forms.

Short adjectives take er/est, and long adjectives take more/most. For rules about which adjectives count as short and which as long, • (4).

NOTE

a There are some spelling rules for er/est.

cIn rather formal English most can mean 'very'. Compare the most and a most. Superlative: It's the most exclusive store in New York.

Degree: It's a most exclusive store. (= very exclusive)

dWhen we compare two qualities, we use more, not er.

I was more sad than angry.

Here are two other ways of saying the same thing.

I was not so much angry as sad.

I was sad rather than angry.

b There are a few irregular forms.

The best restaurants are in Manhattan.

The weather is getting worse.

NOTE

a The adjectives well (= in good health) and ill take these irregular forms.

Ifeel a lot better now. She looks worse today. b For farther/further and elder/eldest, • (5).

3 Position

A comparative or superlative adjective can come in the same position as other adjectives.

We usually put the before a superlative adjective.

Jupiter is the biggest planet.

Jupiteris (the) biggest.

4 Long and short adjectives

In general, short adjectives take er/est while long ones take more/most. Onesyllable adjectives count as short and three-syllable adjectives count as long. Most two-syllable adjectives count as long but not all of them.

aOne-syllable adjectives (e.g. soft, tall)

These take er/est (softer, softest). Exceptions are adjectives in ed (e.g. pleased, bored) and the adjectives real, right and wrong.

The film made the story seem more real.

Some one-syllable adjectives of abstract meaning take either er/est or more/most, e.g. clear,free, keen, safe, sure, true, wise.

I wish I felt surer/more sure about what I'm doing.

b Two-syllable adjectives (e.g. useful, happy)

The following take more/most (more useful, most useful).

The following take either er/est or more/most: able, common, cruel, feeble, gentle, handsome, narrow, pleasant, polite, simple, sincere, stupid, tired.

Two-syllable adjectives ending in y usually take er/est(happier, happiest), although more/most is possible. Some examples: dirty, easy, empty, funny, happy, heavy, hungry, lovely, lucky, pretty, silly, thirsty, tidy.

NOTE

Happy etc can still take er/est, even with a negative prefix: unhappier, untidiest.

Also: unpleasantest/most unpleasant.

cAdjectives of three or more syllables (e.g. difficult, magnificent)

These always take more/most (more difficult, most difficult).

dOverview

5 Some special forms

a Farther/further and farthest/furthest

These words express distance. We use them as adjectives and adverbs.

Thefarthest/furthest moon is 13 million kilometres from Saturn. I can't walk anyfarther/further.

Further (but not farther) can express quantity.

Let's hope there are nofurther problems. (= no more problems)

b Older/elder and oldest/eldest

We use elder and eldest mainly to talk about ages in a family. They go before the noun.

Have you got an older/elder brother?

The oldest/eldest daughter married a pop singer.

cLatest and last

Latest means 'furthest ahead in time' or 'newest'.

What's the latest time we can leave and still catch the train? This jacket is the latestfashion.

Last means 'before' or 'final'.

I had my hair cut last week.

This is the last time I lend anyone my car.

dNearest and next

Nearest means the shortest distance away. Next refers to one of a sequence of things coming one after the other.

Where is the nearest phone box? (= closest, least far) We have to get out at the next stop. (= the stop after this)

NOTE

The rule is that we use fewer/fewest with a plural noun.

There arefewer cars on the road in winter.

But less/least with a plural noun is common, especially in informal speech.

There are less cars on the road in winter.

It is safer for the learner to avoid this usage.

221 Patterns expressing a comparison

MOTELS IN THE USA

Many motels are every bit as elegant, comfortable, and well-equipped as the most modern hotels. Many have bars, fine restaurants and coffee shopsfor casual meals and breakfast. Ifthe motel does not have a restaurant, there are always restaurants nearby. Most rooms arefurnished with television. Even less expensive motels often have a swimming pool. The pricefor rooms in motels is usually slightly less thanfor hotels.

(from USA Travel Information)

1 More, as and less

We can say that something is greater than, equal to or less than something else.

Most hotels are more comfortable than motels. Some motels are as comfortable as hotels.

Some motels are less comfortable than a modern hotel.